{"id":128,"date":"2023-12-13T18:00:28","date_gmt":"2023-12-13T17:00:28","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/?page_id=128"},"modified":"2026-01-11T19:19:42","modified_gmt":"2026-01-11T18:19:42","slug":"zvaranie-elektronovym-lucom","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/?page_id=128","title":{"rendered":"Zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"fusion-fullwidth fullwidth-box fusion-builder-row-1 fusion-flex-container nonhundred-percent-fullwidth non-hundred-percent-height-scrolling\" style=\"--awb-border-radius-top-left:0px;--awb-border-radius-top-right:0px;--awb-border-radius-bottom-right:0px;--awb-border-radius-bottom-left:0px;--awb-flex-wrap:wrap;\" ><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"max-width:1248px;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-0 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:100%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:1.92%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:0px;--awb-spacing-left-large:1.92%;--awb-width-medium:100%;--awb-spacing-right-medium:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:1.92%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-1\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00fdznamn\u00fdm m\u00ed\u013enikom v\u00a0oblasti spracovania materi\u00e1lov elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je rok 1952, kedy fyzik Dr.h.c. Karl-Heinz Steigerwald skon\u0161truoval prv\u00e9 zariadenie na spracovanie materi\u00e1lov elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom (obr. 9.1) [1]. Pri ur\u00fdch\u013eovacom nap\u00e4t\u00ed 120 kV \u00faspe\u0161ne realizoval zv\u00e1ranie oce\u013eov\u00fdch plechov hr\u00fabok 1-2 mm.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-1 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image001.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image001\" title=\"image001\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"221\" height=\"278\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image001.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1223\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image001-200x252.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image001.png 221w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 221px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-2\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.2 Elektr\u00f3novol\u00fa\u010dov\u00e9 zv\u00e1racie zariadenie ES 2 v&nbsp;p\u00f4vodnej podobe [8]<\/h6>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-3\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Steigerwald sa sna\u017eil vyvin\u00fa\u0165 tak\u00e9 zdroje l\u00fa\u010dov, pomocou ktor\u00fdch bude schopn\u00fd dosiahnu\u0165 vy\u0161\u0161ie v\u00fdkony. Elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d pova\u017eoval za tepeln\u00fd n\u00e1stroj, s&nbsp;ktor\u00fdm bolo mo\u017en\u00e9 vyv\u0155ta\u0165 do rub\u00ednov\u00e9ho lo\u017eiska hodiniek dieru s\u00a0priemerom 50 \u03bcm a\u00a0z\u00e1rove\u0148 tavi\u0165, sp\u00e1jkova\u0165 a\u00a0zv\u00e1ra\u0165 priamo vo v\u00e1kuu, \u010do efektivitu spracovania materi\u00e1lov elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom e\u0161te viac zintenz\u00edvnilo. \u00davodn\u00e9 experimenty v\u00a0oblasti zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom realizovali fyzici Hittorf a\u00a0Crookes, ktor\u00ed spo\u010diatku (1869) generovali kat\u00f3dov\u00e9 l\u00fa\u010de v&nbsp;plynoch. V&nbsp;roku 1879 ich n\u00e1sledne pou\u017e\u00edvali na tavenie kovov. Tieto kat\u00f3dov\u00e9 l\u00fa\u010de boli zauj\u00edmav\u00fdm fyzik\u00e1lnym fenom\u00e9nom, ktor\u00e9 predt\u00fdm viedli k&nbsp;objaveniu in\u00fdch typov \u017eiarenia R\u00f6ntgenom (1895), Thompsonom (1897) a Millikanom (1905), pri\u010dom boli pop\u00edsan\u00e9 ako \u201er\u00fdchlo sa pohybuj\u00face elektr\u00f3ny\u201c. Teplo, ktor\u00e9 po\u010das experimentov, vznikalo pri zr\u00e1\u017ekach elektr\u00f3nov sa pova\u017eovalo za \u0161kodliv\u00e9, a preto bolo odv\u00e1dzan\u00e9 chladen\u00edm [2].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Ne\u017eiaduce \u00fa\u010dinky tepla dok\u00e1zal vyu\u017ei\u0165 a\u017e Marcello von Pirani skon\u0161truovan\u00edm pece, v&nbsp;ktorej tavil pomocou elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da tantalov\u00fd pr\u00e1\u0161ok a in\u00e9 kovy. V\u00a0roku 1958 sa J. \u00a0A.\u00a0Stohrovi z&nbsp;Franc\u00fazska podarilo vyhotovi\u0165 tup\u00e9 spoje na plechoch zo zirk\u00f3niovej zliatiny Zircalloy hr\u00fabky 5 mm, pri\u010dom pozoroval tzv. hlbok\u00fd zv\u00e1rac\u00ed efekt [3, 4].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00a0rokoch 1957 \u2013 1958 za\u010dal v\u00a0Moskovskom energetickom in\u0161tit\u00fate (MEI) pod veden\u00edm prof. N.A. O\u013e\u0161ansk\u00e9ho a\u00a0v\u00a0In\u0161tit\u00fate elektrick\u00e9ho zv\u00e1rania E.O. Patona v\u00a0Kyjeve pod veden\u00edm B.A. Mov\u010dana v\u00fdskum v\u00a0oblasti aplik\u00e1cie elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da na zv\u00e1ranie kovov [5].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00fdskumn\u00fd \u00fastav zv\u00e1ra\u010dsk\u00fd v\u00a0Bratislave (V\u00daZ) za\u010dal s\u00a0v\u00fdvojom zv\u00e1rac\u00edch zariaden\u00ed v\u00a0roku 1962 [6]. V\u00a0roku 1965 za\u010dala svoj v\u00fdvoj v\u00a0danej oblasti \u010ceskoslovensk\u00e1 akad\u00e9mia vied v&nbsp;zriadenom vedeckom pracovisku \u00dastav pr\u00edstrojovej techniky v\u00a0Brne [7].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na prelome rokov 1965 a\u00a01966 boli zrealizovan\u00e9 prv\u00e9 pokusy zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom technikom,\u00a0kon\u0161trukt\u00e9rom a \u0161pecialistom v\u00a0oblasti elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho mikroskopu<br \/>\nIng. Ladislavom Zoba\u010dom [8]. Celkovo bolo v\u00a0rozmedz\u00ed troch rokov svojpomocne vyroben\u00fdch a\u017e sedem zv\u00e1ra\u010diek s&nbsp;v\u00fdkonom 1,5 kW.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na obr. 9.2 je dokumentovan\u00e1 elektr\u00f3novol\u00fa\u010dov\u00e1 zv\u00e1ra\u010dka ES2 v\u00a0p\u00f4vodnej podobe, ktor\u00e1 vznikla dohodou piatich pracovn\u00edkov z\u00a0r\u00f4znych pracov\u00edsk, a\u00a0to [7]:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify;\">Zoba\u010d z\u00a0\u00daPT \u010cSAV v&nbsp;Brne,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify;\">Bu\u0161ta z\u00a0\u00dastavu jadrov\u00e9ho v\u00fdskumu v\u00a0\u0158e\u017ei,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify;\">Sika zo z\u00e1vodu jadrov\u00fdch elektr\u00e1rn\u00ed v&nbsp;Bolevci,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify;\">Mr\u00e1zek z&nbsp;TESLA-OPO\u010cNO v&nbsp;Opo\u010dne,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify;\">Ing. Ustohal z&nbsp;VTA AZ v&nbsp;Brne.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-2 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image002.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image002\" title=\"image002\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"383\" height=\"435\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image002.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1224\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image002-200x227.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image002.jpg 383w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 383px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-4\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.2 Elektr\u00f3novol\u00fa\u010dov\u00e9 zv\u00e1racie zariadenie ES 2 v&nbsp;p\u00f4vodnej podobe [8]<\/h6>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-5\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00a0s\u00fa\u010dasnosti sa zv\u00e1ran\u00edm elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom na Slovensku zaoberaj\u00fa pracovn\u00edci Katedry zv\u00e1rania a\u00a0sp\u00e1jania materi\u00e1lov, Materi\u00e1lovotechnologickej fakulty STU so s\u00eddlom v\u00a0Trnave a\u00a0taktie\u017e zamestnanci firmy Prv\u00e1 Zv\u00e1ra\u010dsk\u00e1, a.s., ktor\u00e1 sa zaober\u00e1 v\u00fdvojom a\u00a0v\u00fdrobou zariaden\u00ed na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom. Okrem uveden\u00fdch pracov\u00edsk je mo\u017en\u00e9 sa stretn\u00fa\u0165 so zv\u00e1ran\u00edm elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom na \u00fazem\u00ed Slovenska v\u00a0spolo\u010dnosti ZF Slovakia, a.s..<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Technol\u00f3gia zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom sa r\u00fdchlo roz\u0161\u00edrila najm\u00e4 v\u00a0jadrovej energetike, raketovom a\u00a0leteckom priemysle [6].<\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\">Elektr\u00f3ny<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Elektr\u00f3n predstavuje najmen\u0161iu element\u00e1rnu elektricky nabit\u00fa \u010dasticu, ktor\u00e1 m\u00e1 z\u00e1porn\u00fd n\u00e1boj e = 1,602\u221910<sup>-19<\/sup> C.\u00a0Hmotnos\u0165 elektr\u00f3nu m<sub>e<\/sub> = 9,109\u221910<sup>-31<\/sup> kg je pribli\u017ene 1836 kr\u00e1t men\u0161ia v\u00a0porovnan\u00ed s\u00a0hmotnos\u0165ou prot\u00f3nu [6, 9].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Vzh\u013eadom k\u00a0ich elektrick\u00e9mu n\u00e1boju m\u00f4\u017eu by\u0165 elektr\u00f3ny ovplyvnen\u00e9 dvomi sp\u00f4sobmi.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00a0prvom pr\u00edpade s\u00fa elektr\u00f3ny v&nbsp;elektrick\u00fdch poliach ur\u00fdchlen\u00e9 smerom k&nbsp;an\u00f3de (kladne nabitej elektr\u00f3de), pri\u010dom na nich p\u00f4sob\u00ed tzv. Coulombova sila. Aj v\u00a0zariadeniach na spracovanie materi\u00e1lov elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom s\u00fa elektr\u00f3ny ur\u00fdch\u013eovan\u00e9 Coulombovou silou. V\u00a0priebehu procesu ur\u00fdchlenia absorbuj\u00fa energiu, \u010do vedie k\u00a0zv\u00fd\u0161eniu ich r\u00fdchlosti. Mno\u017estvo energie absorbovanej elektr\u00f3nmi po\u010das tohto procesu je ur\u010den\u00e9 najm\u00e4 rozdielom nap\u00e4t\u00ed, ktor\u00fdm elektr\u00f3ny prech\u00e1dzaj\u00fa [9].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Sila m\u00e1 opa\u010dn\u00fd smer ako je smer vektora intenzity elektrick\u00e9ho po\u013ea. Pr\u00e1ca, ktor\u00fa spotrebuje elektrick\u00e9 pole na premiestnenie n\u00e1boja z\u00a0jedn\u00e9ho bodu do druh\u00e9ho sa rovn\u00e1 s\u00fa\u010dinu ve\u013ekosti n\u00e1boja a\u00a0rozdielu potenci\u00e1lov medzi dvomi bodmi a\u00a0je mo\u017en\u00e9 ju vypo\u010d\u00edta\u0165 pod\u013ea vz\u0165ahu:<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-0 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-3 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"197\" height=\"39\" title=\"image004\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image004-1.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1257\"\/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-1 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-6\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(1)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-7\"><p>kde <em>U<\/em> je rozdiel potenci\u00e1lov medzi bodmi 1 a 2 (obr. 9.3).<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-4 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image006.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image006\" title=\"image006\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"512\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image006-600x512.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1226\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image006-200x171.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image006-400x341.png 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image006-600x512.png 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image006-800x683.png 800w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image006.png 974w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-8\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.3 Vplyv elektrick\u00e9ho po\u013ea na elektr\u00f3n [6, 9]<\/h6>\n<p>Pr\u00e1ca sa spotreb\u00fava na udelenie kinetickej energie elektr\u00f3nu<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-2 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-5 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"127\" height=\"53\" title=\"image008\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image008.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1260\"\/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-3 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-9\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(2)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-10\"><p>kde <em>m<sub>e<\/sub><\/em> je hmotnos\u0165 elektr\u00f3nu, <em>v<\/em>\u00a0a\u00a0<em>v<sub>0<\/sub><\/em> s\u00fa r\u00fdchlosti pohybu elektr\u00f3nov v\u00a0bodoch 1 a\u00a02.<\/p>\n<p>S\u00fa\u010det kinetickej a\u00a0potenci\u00e1lnej energie elektr\u00f3nov pri ich pohybe v\u00a0elektrick\u00fdch poliach zost\u00e1va kon\u0161tantn\u00fd, preto plat\u00ed<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-4 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-6 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"173\" height=\"64\" title=\"image010\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image010.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1261\"\/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-5 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-11\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(3)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-12\"><p>Ak za\u010diato\u010dn\u00e1 r\u00fdchlos\u0165 elektr\u00f3nu <em>v<sub>0<\/sub><\/em> = 0, potom<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-6 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-7 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"119\" height=\"64\" title=\"image012\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image012.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1262\"\/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-7 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-13\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(4)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-14\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Z\u00a0uveden\u00e9ho vzorca vypl\u00fdva, \u017ee energia elektr\u00f3nov je ur\u010den\u00e1 hmotnos\u0165ou a\u00a0r\u00fdchlos\u0165ou \u010dastice. Energia elektr\u00f3nov m\u00f4\u017ee nadobudn\u00fa\u0165 vysok\u00e9 hodnoty a\u00a0z\u00e1vis\u00ed od rozdielu potenci\u00e1lov ur\u00fdch\u013euj\u00faceho po\u013ea. R\u00fdchlos\u0165 elektr\u00f3nov vyjadren\u00e1 prostredn\u00edctvom potenci\u00e1lu ur\u00fdch\u013euj\u00faceho po\u013ea <em>U<\/em>\u00a0je dan\u00e1 vz\u0165ahom<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-8 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-8 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"107\" height=\"87\" title=\"image014\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image014.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1263\"\/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-9 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-15\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(5)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-16\"><p>Dosaden\u00edm hodn\u00f4t pre n\u00e1boj elekr\u00f3nu <em>e<\/em> a\u00a0jeho hmotnos\u0165 <em>m<\/em> do vz\u0165ahu (9.5) je mo\u017en\u00e9 vypo\u010d\u00edta\u0165 pribli\u017en\u00fa r\u00fdchlos\u0165 elektr\u00f3nu [6]:<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-10 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-9 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"202\" height=\"43\" title=\"image016\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image016.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1264\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image016-200x43.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image016.png 202w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 202px\" \/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-11 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-17\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(6)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-18\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V druhom pr\u00edpade m\u00f4\u017eu by\u0165 elektr\u00f3ny ovplyvnen\u00e9 magnetick\u00fdmi po\u013eami, kedy tzv. Lorentzova sila ovplyv\u0148uje smer pohybu elektr\u00f3nov. T\u00fdm m\u00f4\u017eu by\u0165 elektr\u00f3ny vychy\u013eovan\u00e9 kolmo na smer trajekt\u00f3rie a\u00a0silo\u010diary po\u013ea, a to bez ovplyvnenia ich r\u00fdchlosti [9].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Ve\u013emi v\u00fdznamn\u00e1 je skuto\u010dnos\u0165, \u017ee nosi\u010de n\u00e1boja \u2013 elektr\u00f3ny je mo\u017en\u00e9 ur\u00fdchli\u0165 tak v\u00fdznamne, \u017ee doch\u00e1dza vytvoreniu energie dostato\u010dnej na zv\u00e1ranie kovov. Ako je uveden\u00e9 na obr. 9.4, pri pou\u017eit\u00ed be\u017en\u00e9ho ur\u00fdch\u013eovacieho nap\u00e4tia 150 kV a\u00a0vo vhodnom v\u00e1kuu m\u00f4\u017eu elektr\u00f3ny dosahova\u0165 r\u00fdchlos\u0165 2\u221910<sup>8<\/sup> m.s<sup>-1<\/sup>, in\u00fdmi slovami 2\/3 r\u00fdchlosti svetla [10].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-10 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image018.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image018\" title=\"image018\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"531\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image018-600x531.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1232\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image018-200x177.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image018-400x354.png 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image018-600x531.png 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image018.png 731w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-19\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.4 Z\u00e1vislos\u0165 r\u00fdchlosti elektr\u00f3nu od ur\u00fdch\u013eovacieho nap\u00e4tia [3]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Zohriat\u00edm kat\u00f3dy doch\u00e1dza k\u00a0emisii elektr\u00f3nov z\u00a0jej povrchu a\u00a0vzniku emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu. Hustotu emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu je mo\u017en\u00e9 vypo\u010d\u00edta\u0165 pod\u013ea Richardsona a\u00a0Thomsona na z\u00e1klade nasleduj\u00faceho vz\u0165ahu [6]:<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-12 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-11 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"145\" height=\"47\" title=\"image020\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image020.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1265\"\/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-13 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-20\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(7)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-21\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">kde J<sub>e<\/sub> je hustota emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu [A\u00b7cm<sup>-2<\/sup>], A je kon\u0161tanta emisie, ktor\u00e1 z\u00e1vis\u00ed od materi\u00e1lu termokat\u00f3dy [40 a\u017e 70 A\u00b7cm<sup>-2<\/sup>\u00b7K<sup>-2<\/sup>], T je absol\u00fatna teplota kat\u00f3dy [K], e je z\u00e1klad prirodzen\u00fdch logaritmov, e\u2219\u03c6 \u00a0je v\u00fdstupn\u00e1 pr\u00e1ca elektr\u00f3nov z\u00a0kovu a <em>k<\/em> je Boltzmannova kon\u0161tanta [1,38\u221910<sup>-23<\/sup>J\u00b7K<sup>-1<\/sup>] [6].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na z\u00e1klade vz\u0165ahu (9.7) je mo\u017en\u00e9 kon\u0161tatova\u0165, \u017ee najv\u00e4\u010d\u0161\u00ed vplyv na hustotu emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu bude ma\u0165 v\u00fd\u0161ka teploty kat\u00f3dy. Na druhej strane pri zvy\u0161ovan\u00ed teploty m\u00f4\u017ee d\u00f4js\u0165 k\u00a0zv\u00fd\u0161en\u00e9mu odparovaniu materi\u00e1lu termokat\u00f3dy, \u010do sa prejav\u00ed skr\u00e1ten\u00edm \u017eivotnosti kat\u00f3dy [6]. Vzh\u013eadom na exponenci\u00e1lnu z\u00e1vislos\u0165 medzi teplotou kat\u00f3dy a\u00a0hustotou emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu je \u00fa\u010dinn\u00e9 voli\u0165 pre v\u00fdrobu kat\u00f3d materi\u00e1ly s\u00a0vysokou teplotou tavenia. Okrem tantalu, je za t\u00fdmto \u00fa\u010delom vhodn\u00e9 aj pou\u017eitie volfr\u00e1mu legovan\u00e9ho r\u00e9niom kv\u00f4li n\u00edzkemu tlaku p\u00e1r vo v\u00e1kuu, \u010do zabezpe\u010duje relat\u00edvne dlh\u00fa \u017eivotnos\u0165. Pri zariadeniach na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom sa pri tomto type priamo \u017eeravenej volfr\u00e1movej kat\u00f3dy dosahuj\u00fa hustoty emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu okolo J<sub>e<\/sub> = 5 A.cm<sup>-2<\/sup>. Hustota emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu je v\u00fdrazne z\u00e1visl\u00e1 od teploty kat\u00f3dy, a\u00a0to tak, \u017ee mal\u00e1 zmena teploty kat\u00f3dy m\u00e1 v\u00fdrazn\u00fd vplyv na hustotu emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu (obr. 9.5) [3].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-12 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image024.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image024\" title=\"image024\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"599\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image024-600x599.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1235\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image024-200x200.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image024-400x399.png 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image024-600x599.png 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image024-800x798.png 800w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image024.png 886w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-22\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.5 Z\u00e1vislos\u0165 hustoty emisn\u00e9ho pr\u00fadu od teploty kat\u00f3dy [3]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Hoci elektr\u00f3ny prenikaj\u00fa do h\u013abky menej ako 0,1 mm pod povrch r\u00f4znych kovov, je mo\u017en\u00e9 dosiahnu\u0165 h\u013abky prievaru nieko\u013eko centimetrov. Uveden\u00fa skuto\u010dnos\u0165 je mo\u017en\u00e9 dosiahnu\u0165 v\u010faka tzv. efektu hlbok\u00e9ho pretavenia. Elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d zohrieva kov nato\u013eko, \u017ee doch\u00e1dza k\u00a0jeho taveniu a\u00a0v\u00a0centr\u00e1lnej \u010dasti l\u00fa\u010da dokonca k\u00a0jeho vyparovaniu. V&nbsp;roztavenom kove vznik\u00e1 vplyvom tlaku p\u00e1r tzv. paroplynov\u00fd kan\u00e1l, k\u013e\u00fa\u010dov\u00e1 dierka (keyhole), \u010do umo\u017e\u0148uje elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9mu l\u00fa\u010du prenikn\u00fa\u0165 hlb\u0161ie do zv\u00e1ran\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu. Tento efekt umo\u017e\u0148uje vyu\u017ei\u0165 elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d na v\u00fdrobu hlbok\u00fdch a\u00a0\u00fazkych zvarov [3, 11].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Pod\u013ea B. Schanlanda mo\u017eno h\u013abku prieniku elektr\u00f3nov pod povrch bombardovan\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu v&nbsp;milimetroch pri energi\u00e1ch 10 a\u017e 82 keV vyjadri\u0165 pod\u013ea vz\u0165ahu:<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-builder-row-inner fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"width:104% !important;max-width:104% !important;margin-left: calc(-4% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-4% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-14 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-none imageframe-13 hover-type-none\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"64\" title=\"image\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image026-200x64.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1270\"\/><\/span><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column_inner fusion-builder-nested-column-15 fusion_builder_column_inner_1_2 1_2 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:50%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:3.84%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:20px;--awb-spacing-left-large:3.84%;--awb-width-medium:50%;--awb-order-medium:0;--awb-spacing-right-medium:3.84%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:3.84%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-order-small:0;--awb-spacing-right-small:1.92%;--awb-spacing-left-small:1.92%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-column-has-shadow fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-23\"><p style=\"text-align: right;\">(8)<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-24\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">kde U\u00a0je ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie vo voltoch a\u00a0\u03c1 je hustota zv\u00e1ran\u00e9ho kovu v&nbsp;g\u00d7cm<sup>-3<\/sup> [6].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Zo vz\u0165ahu vypl\u00fdva, \u017ee h\u013abka prieniku elektr\u00f3nov z\u00e1vis\u00ed od ur\u00fdch\u013eovacieho nap\u00e4tia a\u00a0od hustoty materi\u00e1lu. Napr\u00edklad, h\u013abka prieniku elektr\u00f3nov do materi\u00e1lu je pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed hlin\u00edka pri danom ur\u00fdch\u013eovacom nap\u00e4t\u00ed 7-kr\u00e1t vy\u0161\u0161ia ako v\u00a0pr\u00edpade\u00a0volfr\u00e1mu (tab. 9.1) [9].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><em>Tab. 9.1 H\u013abky prieniku elektr\u00f3nov pod povrch r\u00f4znych kovov (\u00b5m) pod\u013ea [9]<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"left\">Ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie\/druh kovu<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Mg<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Al<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Ti<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Fe<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Cu<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">W<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">60 kV<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">35<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">23<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">14<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">8<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">7<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">120 kV<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">112<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">72<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">43<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">25<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">22<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">10<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-25\"><h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\">Princ\u00edp zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Princ\u00edp technol\u00f3gie zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je nasledovn\u00fd. Najsk\u00f4r sa z\u00a0v\u00e1kuovej komory od\u010derp\u00e1 vzduch. Elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d sa vytv\u00e1ra pri vysokom v\u00e1kuu v\u00a0elektr\u00f3novom dele. \u017deraviacim pr\u00fadom sa generuj\u00fa elektr\u00f3ny, ktor\u00e9 s\u00fa ur\u00fdchlen\u00e9 na termoemisn\u00fa kat\u00f3du (tabletu LaB<sub>6<\/sub>). Po ich dopade na povrch kat\u00f3dy jej elektr\u00f3ny odovzdaj\u00fa svoju kinetick\u00fa energiu, kat\u00f3da sa zohreje a\u00a0emituje elektr\u00f3ny. Ich mno\u017estvo, ktor\u00e9 zodpoved\u00e1 ve\u013ekosti zv\u00e1racieho pr\u00fadu a\u00a0vlastne mno\u017estvu generovan\u00e9ho tepla elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je riaden\u00e9 nap\u00e4t\u00edm na Welnehltovej elektr\u00f3de. \u010c\u00edm je nap\u00e4tie na nej men\u0161ie, t\u00fdm viac elektr\u00f3nov op\u00fa\u0161\u0165a kat\u00f3du. Ur\u00fdchlenie elektr\u00f3nov nast\u00e1va medzi kat\u00f3dou a\u00a0an\u00f3dou s&nbsp;rozdielom potenci\u00e1lov 60 a\u017e 175 kV, \u010d\u00edm sa dosiahne ich ur\u00fdchlenie\u00a0 na pribli\u017ene 2\/3 r\u00fdchlosti svetla. \u00a0Pomocou\u00a0 magnetick\u00fdch\u00a0 \u0161o\u0161oviek s\u00fa elektr\u00f3ny n\u00e1sledne\u00a0 zaostren\u00e9\u00a0 (sfokusovan\u00e9)\u00a0 na zv\u00e1ran\u00e9 materi\u00e1ly\u00a0 ako l\u00fa\u010d s&nbsp;vysokou hustotou v\u00fdkonu. Po jeho dopade na zv\u00e1ran\u00e9 materi\u00e1ly sa elektr\u00f3ny spomalia a ich obrovsk\u00e1 kinetick\u00e1\u00a0 energia sa premen\u00ed na teplo. Ved\u013eaj\u0161\u00edm produktom interakcie elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da so zv\u00e1ran\u00fdmi materi\u00e1lmi je vznik RTG \u017eiarenia, ktor\u00e9 je pohlten\u00e9 materi\u00e1lom zv\u00e1racej komory. Intenzity energie viac ako 1 kW\/mm\u00b2 ved\u00fa k&nbsp;samovo\u013en\u00e9mu\u00a0 odparovaniu\u00a0 materi\u00e1lu\u00a0 so\u00a0 zodpovedaj\u00facim\u00a0 efektom\u00a0 hlbok\u00e9ho\u00a0 prievaru (keyhole).\u00a0 Napr. gener\u00e1tory\u00a0 firmy Steigerwald Strahltechnik\u00a0 m\u00f4\u017eu dosahova\u0165 hustoty v\u00fdkonu viac\u00a0 ako\u00a0 100\u00a0 kW\/mm\u00b2\u00a0 a\u00a0 otv\u00e1raj\u00fa\u00a0 tak\u00a0 \u0161irok\u00e9\u00a0 spektrum\u00a0 aplik\u00e1ci\u00ed\u00a0 v\u00a0 technol\u00f3gii\u00a0 spracovania materi\u00e1lov elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom [1]. Pohybom zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov pri dopadaj\u00facom l\u00fa\u010di na ich povrch sa vytvor\u00ed zvar. Po zvaren\u00ed sa komora zavzdu\u0161n\u00ed a\u00a0zvarok sa z\u00a0nej vyberie von. Sch\u00e9ma zariadenia a zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je na obr. 9.6.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-14 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image028\" title=\"image028\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"553\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028-800x553.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1237\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028-200x138.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028-400x276.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028-600x415.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028-800x553.jpg 800w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028-1200x829.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image028.jpg 1399w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-26\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.6 Sch\u00e9ma zariadenia a\u00a0zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Hlavnou charakteristikou zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je vysok\u00e1 kvalita zvarov\u00fdch spojov s&nbsp;ve\u013emi \u00fazkou teplom ovplyvnenou oblas\u0165ou, mal\u00fdmi deform\u00e1ciami a \u00fazkymi a hlbok\u00fdmi zvarmi [3].<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: justify;\">KAT\u00d3DA<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Vo v\u00e4\u010d\u0161ine elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch diel sa na zv\u00e1ranie sa pou\u017e\u00edvaj\u00fa kovov\u00e9 kat\u00f3dy. S\u00a0cie\u013eom z\u00edskania vysok\u00fdch pr\u00fadov\u00fdch hust\u00f4t sa preto pou\u017e\u00edvaj\u00fa kovy s\u00a0malou v\u00fdstupnou pr\u00e1cou, \u010do umo\u017e\u0148uje ohrev na vysok\u00e9 teploty, pri relat\u00edvne malej r\u00fdchlosti vyparovania kovu. Medzi najroz\u0161\u00edrenej\u0161ie kovy, ktor\u00e9 sp\u013a\u0148aj\u00fa uveden\u00e9 po\u017eiadavky patria volfr\u00e1m a\u00a0tantal [12]. Hlavnou v\u00fdhodou volfr\u00e1mu je najm\u00e4 jeho vysok\u00e1 teplota tavenia (3&nbsp;422&nbsp;\u00b0C) [13].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">U\u00a0niektor\u00fdch typov elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch diel sa pou\u017e\u00edvaj\u00fa lant\u00e1n-boridov\u00e9 kat\u00f3dy (LaB<sub>6<\/sub>), ktor\u00e9 s\u00fa charakteristick\u00e9 lep\u0161\u00edmi emisn\u00fdmi charakteristikami v\u00a0porovnan\u00ed s\u00a0kovov\u00fdmi kat\u00f3dami [12]. LaB<sub>6<\/sub> je \u017eiaruvzdorn\u00fd keramick\u00fd materi\u00e1l, ktor\u00fd m\u00e1 vysok\u00fa teplotu tavenia 2&nbsp;210&nbsp;\u00b0C a je nerozpustn\u00fd vo vode a kyseline chlorovod\u00edkovej. Vo v\u00e1kuu je stabiln\u00fd [14]. Vlastnosti kat\u00f3dy LaB<sub>6<\/sub> s\u00fa zosumarizovan\u00e9 v\u00a0tab. 9.2.<\/p>\n<p><em>Tab. 9.2 Vlastnosti kat\u00f3dy LaB6 [14]<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Chemick\u00fd vzorec<\/th>\n<th style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">LaB<sub>6<\/sub><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Farba<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">fialov\u00e1<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Teplota tavenia (\u00b0C)<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">2210<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Hustota (g\/cm<sup>3<\/sup>)<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">4,72<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Molov\u00e1 hmotnos\u0165 (g\/mol)<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">203,78<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Tvrdos\u0165 HRA<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">87,5<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Koeficient tepelnej vodivosti pri 20&nbsp;\u00b0C (W\/mK)<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">47<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Koeficient teplotnej roz\u0165a\u017enosti (v&nbsp;intervale 20-900&nbsp;\u00b0C) x 10<sup>-6<\/sup> K<sup>-1<\/sup><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">6,2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Mern\u00e1 elektrick\u00e1 vodivos\u0165 (pri 20&nbsp;\u00b0C) \u03bc\u03a9.cm<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">15<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Elektrick\u00e1 vodivos\u0165 (pri 20&nbsp;\u00b0C) x 10<sup>4<\/sup> S\/cm<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">6,65<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Pr\u00fadov\u00e1 hustota (pri 1950&nbsp;\u00b0C) A\/cm<sup>2<\/sup><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">150<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Emisivita elektr\u00f3nov eV<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">2,6<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-27\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Lant\u00e1n-boridov\u00e9 kat\u00f3dy sa metalizuj\u00fa parami kovov, ktor\u00e9 maj\u00fa teplotu tavenia rovn\u00fa alebo vy\u0161\u0161iu ako je pracovn\u00e1 teplota kat\u00f3dy. Pod\u013ea sp\u00f4sobu ohrevu sa rozozn\u00e1vaj\u00fa priamo a\u00a0nepriamo \u017eeraven\u00e9 kat\u00f3dy. Priamo \u017eeraven\u00e9 kat\u00f3dy s\u00fa jednoduch\u0161ieho tvaru, av\u0161ak maj\u00fa cel\u00fd rad nedostatkov. V\u00a0prvom rade je to skuto\u010dnos\u0165, \u017ee v\u00a0pr\u00edpade priamo \u017eeraven\u00fdch kat\u00f3d je obtia\u017ene zabezpe\u010di\u0165 spr\u00e1vny geometrick\u00fd tvar emituj\u00faceho povrchu. Navy\u0161e, pr\u00fad, ktor\u00fd sa pou\u017e\u00edva na ohrev priamo \u017eeravenej kat\u00f3dy vytv\u00e1ra zna\u010dn\u00e9 magnetick\u00e9 pole, vychy\u013euj\u00face emitovan\u00e9 elektr\u00f3ny od osi reflektora. V\u00fdhoda nepriamo \u017eeraven\u00fdch kat\u00f3d spo\u010d\u00edva v\u00a0tom, \u017ee maj\u00fa rovnomernej\u0161iu hustotu emisie po povrchu, pri\u010dom s\u00fa ekvipotenci\u00e1lnymi. Hlavn\u00e1 v\u00fdhoda lant\u00e1n-boridov\u00fdch kat\u00f3d v\u00a0porovnan\u00ed s\u00a0kovov\u00fdmi je vysok\u00e1 emisn\u00e1 schopnos\u0165 pri pomerne n\u00edzkej pracovnej teplote (1600&nbsp;\u00b0C). Av\u0161ak na pr\u00e1cu lant\u00e1n-boridov\u00fdch kat\u00f3d vpl\u00fdvaj\u00fa v\u00fdpary zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch kovov. Pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed kovov s\u00a0teplotou tavenia ni\u017e\u0161ou ako 1500-1900&nbsp;\u00b0C nedoch\u00e1dza k\u00a0metaliz\u00e1cii kat\u00f3dy parami zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov. \u017divotnos\u0165 kat\u00f3dy a\u00a0stabilita jej parametrov s\u00fa v\u00a0tomto pr\u00edpade definovan\u00e9 stup\u0148om poru\u0161enia povrchu kat\u00f3dy a\u00a0i\u00f3nov\u00fdm bombardovan\u00edm a \u201estratami\u201c materi\u00e1lu kat\u00f3dy pri vzniku n\u00edzkotavite\u013en\u00fdch eutekt\u00edk, ktor\u00e9 vznikaj\u00fa na jej povrchu v\u00a0d\u00f4sledku reakci\u00ed s\u00a0parami zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch kovov. Stabilnej\u0161ie parametre elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da poskytuj\u00fa mas\u00edvne (hr\u00fabky 1 \u2013 1,5 mm) kovov\u00e9 elektr\u00f3dy ohrievan\u00e9 procesom i\u00f3nov\u00e9ho bombardovania. Ohrev kat\u00f3dy \u017eiaren\u00edm volfr\u00e1mov\u00e9ho vl\u00e1kna v\u00a0tvare \u0161pir\u00e1ly sa jav\u00ed ako neekonomick\u00fd pri po\u017eiadavke dosiahnutia teploty emituj\u00faceho povrchu kat\u00f3dy vy\u0161\u0161ej ako 1600 \u2013 1700&nbsp;\u00b0C. Tak\u00fdto sp\u00f4sob ohrevu nezaru\u010d\u00ed potrebn\u00e9 parametre l\u00fa\u010da v\u00a0pr\u00edpade pou\u017eitia lant\u00e1n-boridov\u00fdch kat\u00f3d pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed materi\u00e1lov, ktor\u00e9 obsahuj\u00fa vysokotavite\u013en\u00e9 prvky, ako aj pri ohreve mas\u00edvnych vysokotavite\u013en\u00fdch kat\u00f3d (Ta, ZrC, W) [13].<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: justify;\">AN\u00d3DA<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Kat\u00f3da prostredn\u00edctvom procesu tepelnej emisie poskytuje zdroj vo\u013en\u00fdch elektr\u00f3nov, av\u0161ak tieto nevytv\u00e1raj\u00fa elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d potrebn\u00fd na zv\u00e1ranie kovov. V\u010faka termoemisii, za\u010d\u00edna by\u0165 samotn\u00e1 kat\u00f3da kladne nabit\u00e1, \u010d\u00edm s\u00fa z\u00e1porne nabit\u00e9 elektr\u00f3ny pri\u0165ahovan\u00e9 nasp\u00e4\u0165 a\u00a0v\u00a0okol\u00ed kat\u00f3dy doch\u00e1dza k\u00a0vzniku oblaku elektr\u00f3nov. Aby bolo mo\u017en\u00e9 udeli\u0165 elektr\u00f3nom kinetick\u00fa energiu, ktor\u00fa potrebuj\u00fa, musia by\u0165 ur\u00fdchlen\u00e9 na vysok\u00e9 r\u00fdchlosti. Z\u00a0toho d\u00f4vodu sa na kat\u00f3du priv\u00e1dza z\u00e1porn\u00e9 nap\u00e4tie a\u00a0an\u00f3da so zemniacim potenci\u00e1lom je umiestnen\u00e1 ponad elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd oblak. Elektrick\u00e9 pole medzi kat\u00f3dou a\u00a0an\u00f3dou ur\u00fdch\u013euje elektr\u00f3ny smerom k\u00a0an\u00f3de. Elektr\u00f3ny prech\u00e1dzaj\u00fa an\u00f3dou kon\u0161tantnou r\u00fdchlos\u0165ou. Gener\u00e1tor vysok\u00e9ho nap\u00e4tia z\u00e1sobuje kat\u00f3du elektrick\u00fdm pr\u00fadom alebo zjednodu\u0161ene, nov\u00fdmi elektr\u00f3nmi. Preto elektr\u00f3ny pr\u00fadia v\u00a0uzavretom obvode zo zv\u00e1ran\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu, cez zariadenie a\u00a0uzemnenie nasp\u00e4\u0165 do gener\u00e1tora vysok\u00e9ho nap\u00e4tia.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: justify;\">RIADIACA ELEKTR\u00d3DA (WEHNELTOV VALEC)<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Pomocou kat\u00f3dy a\u00a0an\u00f3dy je mo\u017en\u00e9 skon\u0161truova\u0165 najjednoduch\u0161\u00ed typ gener\u00e1tora elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da. Tento di\u00f3dov\u00fd syst\u00e9m sa naz\u00fdva Pierceov syst\u00e9m a\u00a0v\u00a0prv\u00fdch rokoch zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom bol pou\u017eit\u00fd v\u00a0mno\u017estve zariaden\u00ed. Di\u00f3dov\u00fd syst\u00e9m m\u00e1 v\u0161ak jednu v\u00fdrazn\u00fa nev\u00fdhodu, a\u00a0tou je fakt, \u017ee pr\u00fad l\u00fa\u010da mo\u017eno regulova\u0165 iba zmenou ur\u00fdch\u013eovacieho nap\u00e4tia alebo teploty kat\u00f3dy, \u010do je z\u00a0ekonomick\u00e9ho h\u013eadiska neefekt\u00edvne. Preto sa v\u00a0zariadeniach na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom za\u010dal pou\u017e\u00edva\u0165 tzv. tri\u00f3dov\u00fd syst\u00e9m, ktor\u00fd sa sklad\u00e1 z\u00a0kat\u00f3dy, an\u00f3dy a\u00a0riadiacej elektr\u00f3dy, tie\u017e zn\u00e1mej ako Wehneltov valec alebo Wehneltova elektr\u00f3da. Wehneltov valec m\u00e1 rovnak\u00fd n\u00e1boj ako kat\u00f3da, av\u0161ak m\u00e1 vy\u0161\u0161ie negat\u00edvne nap\u00e4tie, ktor\u00e9 je na valec priv\u00e1dzan\u00e9 zo samostatn\u00e9ho zdroja energie. Na z\u00e1klade skuto\u010dnosti, \u017ee rovnak\u00e9 n\u00e1boje sa odpudzuj\u00fa, je riadiaca elektr\u00f3da pri vhodnom potenci\u00e1li schopn\u00e1 zabezpe\u010di\u0165 odpudzovanie elektr\u00f3nov nasp\u00e4\u0165, smerom ku kat\u00f3de, a\u00a0to aj napriek rozdielu potenci\u00e1lov medzi kat\u00f3dou a\u00a0an\u00f3dou. T\u00fdmto sp\u00f4sobom je mo\u017en\u00e9 vypn\u00fa\u0165 pr\u00fad l\u00fa\u010da zmen\u0161en\u00edm emituj\u00facej plochy na povrchu kat\u00f3dy na nulu. Ak d\u00f4jde k\u00a0zn\u00ed\u017eeniu nap\u00e4tia na riadiacej elektr\u00f3de, zv\u00e4\u010d\u0161\u00ed sa emisn\u00e1 plocha elektr\u00f3nov na povrchu kat\u00f3dy a\u00a0t\u00fdm aj priemer l\u00fa\u010da. Nastavenie pr\u00fadu l\u00fa\u010da je teda mo\u017en\u00e9 dosiahnu\u0165 zmenou riadiaceho nap\u00e4tia: vysok\u00e9 riadiace nap\u00e4tie = n\u00edzky pr\u00fad l\u00fa\u010da, n\u00edzke riadiace nap\u00e4tie = vysok\u00fd pr\u00fad l\u00fa\u010da [3]. Kon\u0161trukcia gener\u00e1tora elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da od firmy Steigerwald Strahltechnik je uveden\u00e1 na obr. 9.7.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-15 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image030.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image030\" title=\"image030\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"528\" height=\"530\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image030.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1238\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image030-200x201.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image030-400x402.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image030.jpg 528w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 528px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-28\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.7 Gener\u00e1tor elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch l\u00fa\u010dov od firmy Steigerwald Strahltechnik [1]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Gener\u00e1tory elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch l\u00fa\u010dov od firmy Steigerwald Strahltechnik a aplika\u010dn\u00fd rozsah zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom v\u00a0praxi je dokumentovan\u00fd v\u00a0tab. 9.3 a\u00a09.4 [1].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em>Tab. 9.3 Gener\u00e1tory elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch l\u00fa\u010dov vyr\u00e1ban\u00fdch vo firme Steigerwald Strahltechnik [1]<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"left\">Zariadenia na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom v\u00a0jemnom a vysokom v\u00e1kuu<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Zariadenia na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom mimo v\u00e1kua<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie 60 kV, v\u00fdkony l\u00fa\u010da 1 a\u017e 45 kW<\/p>\n<p>Ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie 150 kV, v\u00fdkony l\u00fa\u010da 7,5 a\u017e 60 kW<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">Ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie 175 kV, v\u00fdkony l\u00fa\u010da 1 a\u017e 30 kW<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-29\"><p><em>Tab. 9.4 Aplika\u010dn\u00fd rozsah zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom v\u00a0praxi firmy Steigerwald Strahltechnik [1]<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"left\">Hr\u00fabky zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">R\u00fdchlosti zv\u00e1rania<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">0,05 mm a\u017e 200 mm a vy\u0161\u0161ie<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">0,5 a\u017e 400 mm\/s a vy\u0161\u0161ie<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-30\"><h3 style=\"text-align: justify;\">OPTIKA<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Aby bolo mo\u017en\u00e9 pracova\u0165 s\u00a0elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom, je potrebn\u00e9 nasmerova\u0165 ho na povrch zv\u00e1ran\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu. Elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d je mo\u017en\u00e9 fokusova\u0165 pomocou magnetick\u00fdch pol\u00ed. V\u00a0pr\u00edpade ak je dr\u00f4t, ktor\u00fdm prech\u00e1dza elektrick\u00fd pr\u00fad navinut\u00fd okolo elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da, generuje t\u00e1to cievka pole, ktor\u00e9 sl\u00fa\u017ei ako \u0161o\u0161ovka. Ohniskov\u00e1 vzdialenos\u0165 \u0161o\u0161ovky bude z\u00e1visie\u0165 od energie elektr\u00f3nu, pr\u00fadu cievky a\u00a0tvaru cievky. Zmenou pr\u00fadu cievky je mo\u017en\u00e9 jednoducho meni\u0165 ohniskov\u00e9 vzdialenosti l\u00fa\u010da. Umiestnen\u00edm dvoch cievok kolm\u00fdch na elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d vznik\u00e1 magnetick\u00e9 pole, prostredn\u00edctvom ktor\u00e9ho je mo\u017en\u00e9 zabezpe\u010di\u0165 vychy\u013eovanie elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da bo bokov (obr. 9.8). Ve\u013ekos\u0165 tak\u00e9ho vych\u00fdlenia bude op\u00e4\u0165 z\u00e1visie\u0165 od pr\u00fadu cievky. Pridan\u00edm druh\u00e9ho p\u00e1ru cievok kolm\u00fdch na prv\u00fa dvojicu je mo\u017en\u00e9 zabezpe\u010di\u0165 vychy\u013eovanie elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da v\u00a0\u013eubovo\u013enom smere po povrchu zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov. Pripojen\u00edm gener\u00e1tora funkci\u00ed je mo\u017en\u00e9 vytv\u00e1ra\u0165 na povrchu zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov komplexn\u00e9 tvary [9].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-16 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image032.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image032\" title=\"image032\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"360\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image032-600x360.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1239\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image032-200x120.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image032-400x240.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image032-600x360.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image032.jpg 616w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-31\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.8 Vychy\u013eovanie elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da v\u00a0homog\u00e9nnom magnetickom poli kolmo na elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d [9]<\/h6>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><a name=\"_Toc93303197\"><\/a>1.1.1\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 V\u00c1KUOV\u00dd SYST\u00c9M<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Proces zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom sa uskuto\u010d\u0148uje vo v\u00e1kuovej komore pri tlaku pribli\u017ene<br \/>\n10<sup>-4<\/sup> a\u017e 10<sup>-3<\/sup> Pa. Tak\u00e9to vysok\u00e9 v\u00e1kuum je potrebn\u00e9, aby sa zabr\u00e1nilo strate energie elektr\u00f3nov v\u00a0d\u00f4sledku ich kol\u00edzie s&nbsp;molekulami vzduchu [15]. Pre aplik\u00e1cie zv\u00e1rania je v\u00a0elektr\u00f3novom dele nevyhnutn\u00e9 vytvorenie v\u00e1kua a\u00a0to z\u00a0nasledovn\u00fdch pr\u00ed\u010din:<\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li>ochrana kat\u00f3dy pred oxid\u00e1ciou, ktor\u00e1 by pri teplot\u00e1ch okolo 2&nbsp;750&nbsp;\u00b0C mohla po\u0161kodi\u0165 samotn\u00fa kat\u00f3du,<\/li>\n<li>po\u010das emisie elektr\u00f3nov, ur\u00fdchlenia a\u00a0kolim\u00e1cie m\u00f4\u017ee d\u00f4js\u0165 ku kol\u00edzii \u013eahk\u00fdch elektr\u00f3nov s\u00a0nieko\u013ek\u00fdmi \u0165a\u017ek\u00fdmi molekulami pr\u00edtomn\u00fdmi vo vzduchu. V\u00a0pr\u00edpade ak bud\u00fa vych\u00fdlen\u00e9 pr\u00edli\u0161 \u010faleko od svojej ide\u00e1lnej dr\u00e1hy, nebude mo\u017en\u00e9 ich sfokusova\u0165 na dosiahnutie po\u017eadovanej hustoty v\u00fdkonu,<\/li>\n<li>je potrebn\u00e9 dosiahnu\u0165 vysok\u00fd stupe\u0148 odizolovania kat\u00f3dy, an\u00f3dy a\u00a0riadiacej elektr\u00f3dy, ktor\u00fd je mo\u017en\u00e9 dosiahnu\u0165 v\u00a0po\u017eadovanom v\u00e1kuu. Na vzduchu alebo v\u00a0pr\u00edpade nedostato\u010dn\u00e9ho v\u00e1kua m\u00f4\u017ee d\u00f4js\u0165 k\u00a0ioniz\u00e1cii a\u00a0pr\u00edtomn\u00e9 nap\u00e4tia sa bud\u00fa vyb\u00edja\u0165.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00e1kuum je stav plynn\u00e9ho prostredia, ktor\u00e9ho absol\u00fatny tlak je men\u0161\u00ed ne\u017e je atmosf\u00e9rick\u00fd tlak. Na z\u00edskavanie v\u00e1kua s\u00fa pou\u017e\u00edvan\u00e9 r\u00f4zne typy v\u00fdvev, na meranie v\u00e1kua v\u00e1kuometre a na udr\u017eiavanie v\u00e1kua sa pou\u017e\u00edvaj\u00fa v\u00e1kuov\u00e9 syst\u00e9my [16].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na z\u00edskanie v\u00e1kua v\u00a0pracovnej komore je potrebn\u00e9 pou\u017ei\u0165 syst\u00e9m v\u00fdvev. Zariadenie na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom PZ EZ 30 STU in\u0161talovan\u00e9 na Katedre zv\u00e1rania a\u00a0sp\u00e1jania materi\u00e1lov spolo\u010dnos\u0165ou Prv\u00e1 Zv\u00e1ra\u010dsk\u00e1, a.s. pozost\u00e1va z\u00a0nieko\u013ek\u00fdch v\u00fdvev. V\u00e1kuov\u00fd syst\u00e9m je tvoren\u00fd \u00a0dvomi vetvami. Prv\u00e1 vetva je tvoren\u00e1 rota\u010dnou olejovou v\u00fdvevou a\u00a0dvomi Rootsov\u00fdmi v\u00fdvevami. Tento syst\u00e9m v\u00fdvev zabezpe\u010duje vznik jemn\u00e9ho v\u00e1kua s\u00a0hodnotou 1\u00a0Pa (pribli\u017ene jedna stotis\u00edcina atmosf\u00e9rick\u00e9ho tlaku). Po dosiahnut\u00ed uveden\u00e9ho hrani\u010dn\u00e9ho tlaku sa vetva \u010d. 1 uzatvor\u00ed a\u00a0\u010fal\u0161ie \u010derpanie v\u00e1kuovej komory je realizovan\u00e9 dif\u00faznou v\u00fdvevou, ktor\u00e1 je pred\u010derp\u00e1van\u00e1 rota\u010dnou olejovou v\u00fdvevou a\u00a0Rootsovou v\u00fdvevou. Vetva \u010d. 2 je schopn\u00e1 dosiahnu\u0165 pracovn\u00e9 v\u00e1kuum, ktor\u00e9 sa pou\u017e\u00edva pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed kovov, t. j. 10<sup>-2<\/sup> Pa. Okrem spom\u00ednan\u00fdch v\u00fdvev je \u010derpanie komory ur\u00fdchlen\u00e9 aplikovan\u00edm kryog\u00e9nnej v\u00fdvevy. Elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9 del\u00e1 s\u00fa \u010derpan\u00e9 priamo turbomolekul\u00e1rnou v\u00fdvevou. V\u00e1kuum v\u00a0elektr\u00f3novom dele je o\u00a0dva r\u00e1dy vy\u0161\u0161ie (10<sup>-4<\/sup> Pa). Rozdelenie v\u00e1kua pod\u013ea rozsahu hrani\u010dn\u00fdch tlakov je uveden\u00e9 v\u00a0tab. 9.5.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em>Tab. 9.5 Rozdelenie v\u00e1kua pod\u013ea rozsahu hrani\u010dn\u00fdch tlakov<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table style=\"width: 100%;\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 21.1359%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\"><\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 19.0875%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Hrub\u00e9 v\u00e1kuum<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 19.3669%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Jemn\u00e9 v\u00e1kuum<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 19.9255%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Vysok\u00e9 v\u00e1kuum<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 19.3669%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Ultrav\u00e1kuum<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 21.1359%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Rozsah tlakov (Pa)<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.0875%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">101\u00a0325 &#8211; 100<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.3669%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">100 \u2013 0,1<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.9255%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">0,1 \u2013 10<sup>-6<\/sup><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.3669%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">&lt;10<sup>-6<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 21.1359%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">Po\u010det \u010dast\u00edc v\u00a01 cm<sup>3<\/sup><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.0875%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">10<sup>19<\/sup> &#8211; 10<sup>16<\/sup><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.3669%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">10<sup>16<\/sup> &#8211; 10<sup>13<\/sup><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.9255%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">10<sup>13<\/sup> \u2013 10<sup>8<\/sup><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.3669%; text-align: center;\" align=\"left\">&lt;10<sup>8<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-32\" style=\"--awb-content-alignment:justify;\"><p><strong><em>Mechanick\u00e9 v\u00fdvevy <\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Z\u00e1kladn\u00fdm funk\u010dn\u00fdm znakom mechanick\u00fdch v\u00fdvev je skuto\u010dnos\u0165, \u017ee ich \u010derpac\u00ed efekt spo\u010d\u00edva v&nbsp;periodicky sa opakuj\u00facom zv\u00e4\u010d\u0161ovan\u00ed a zmen\u0161ovan\u00ed objemu pracovn\u00e9ho priestoru v\u00fdvevy. Po\u010das jeho zv\u00e4\u010d\u0161ovania je objem pracovn\u00e9ho priestoru spojen\u00fd s&nbsp;od\u010derp\u00e1van\u00fdm syst\u00e9mom (recipientom).<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Rota\u010dn\u00e1 olejov\u00e1 v\u00fdveva<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rota\u010dn\u00e9 olejov\u00e9 v\u00fdvevy sa pou\u017e\u00edvaj\u00fa ako prim\u00e1rne v\u00fdvevy v\u00e1kuov\u00e9ho syst\u00e9mu. V\u00fdveva sa sklad\u00e1 z&nbsp;valcovej pracovnej komory, v&nbsp;ktorej sa ot\u00e1\u010da excentricky ulo\u017een\u00fd valcov\u00fd rotor. V&nbsp;rotore je medzera, v&nbsp;ktorej sa pohybuj\u00fa dve lopatky tak, \u017ee pomocou pru\u017einy sa pritl\u00e1\u010daj\u00fa k&nbsp;vn\u00fatorn\u00fdm sten\u00e1m statora valcov\u00e9ho tvaru. Pracovn\u00fd priestor komory je t\u00fdm p\u00e1dom rozdelen\u00fd na tri \u010dasti, v&nbsp;ktor\u00fdch sa objem striedavo zv\u00e4\u010d\u0161uje a zmen\u0161uje, \u010d\u00edm doch\u00e1dza k&nbsp;nas\u00e1vaniu a vytl\u00e1\u010daniu \u010derpan\u00e9ho plynu. Cel\u00e9 teleso v\u00fdvevy je ponoren\u00e9 v&nbsp;oleji. Olej m\u00e1 tesniacu, chladiacu a mazaciu funkciu, s\u00fa\u010dasne vyp\u013a\u0148a pri n\u00edzkych tlakoch m\u0155tvy priestor a pom\u00e1ha otvori\u0165 v\u00fdstupn\u00fd ventil. Zn\u00ed\u017eenie hrani\u010dn\u00e9ho tlaku viac ne\u017e o jeden r\u00e1d je mo\u017en\u00e9 dosiahnu\u0165 zaraden\u00edm dvoch v\u00fdvev do s\u00e9rie, \u010do sa kon\u0161truk\u010dne rob\u00ed pri dvojstup\u0148ov\u00fdch rota\u010dn\u00fdch v\u00fdvev\u00e1ch [16, 17]. Rota\u010dn\u00e9 olejov\u00e9 v\u00fdvevy sa vyr\u00e1baj\u00fa v&nbsp;\u0161irokom rozsahu r\u00fdchlost\u00ed \u010derpania od 1,5&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>\/h a\u017e do 1&nbsp;000&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>\/h. V&nbsp;z\u00e1vislosti od aplik\u00e1cie s\u00fa navrhnut\u00e9 s&nbsp;r\u00f4znymi hrani\u010dn\u00fdmi tlakmi &#8211; oby\u010dajne od 50 Pa do 0,1 Pa [16].<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Rootsova v\u00fdveva<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rootsova v\u00fdveva je bezolejov\u00e1 mechanick\u00e1 v\u00fdveva. Sklad\u00e1 sa zo statora, v&nbsp;ktorom sa v&nbsp;protismere ot\u00e1\u010daj\u00fa dva rotory s&nbsp;prierezom tvaru osmi\u010dky. Rotory s\u00fa navz\u00e1jom spojen\u00e9 ozuben\u00fdm prevodom. Rotory v\u00fdvevy s\u00fa presne opracovan\u00e9 a nedot\u00fdkaj\u00fa sa stien statora a ani navz\u00e1jom. Medzi nimi je medzera r\u00e1dovo 0,05 mm, \u010do umo\u017e\u0148uje docieli\u0165 vysok\u00fd po\u010det ot\u00e1\u010dok rotorov a t\u00fdm aj zna\u010dn\u00fa \u010derpaciu r\u00fdchlos\u0165 [17]. Hrani\u010dn\u00fd tlak Rootsov\u00fdch v\u00fdvev je na \u00farovni 10<sup>-2<\/sup> Pa a r\u00fdchlos\u0165 \u010derpania 25 a\u017e 200&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>\/h [18].<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Turbomolekul\u00e1rna v\u00fdveva<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Turbomolekul\u00e1rne v\u00fdvevy s\u00fa kinetick\u00e9 v\u00e1kuov\u00e9 v\u00fdvevy [19]. Ich \u010derpac\u00ed efekt je zalo\u017een\u00fd na prenose hybnosti jednotliv\u00fdmi molekulami plynu v&nbsp;smere \u010derpania od r\u00fdchlo rotuj\u00faceho rotora. T\u00fdm vznik\u00e1 rozdiel tlakov na vstupnej a v\u00fdstupnej strane v\u00fdvevy. Vo vn\u00fatri valcov\u00e9ho statora sa ot\u00e1\u010da s&nbsp;ve\u013ekou r\u00fdchlos\u0165ou rotor. Molekuly plynu, ktor\u00e9 sa nach\u00e1dzaj\u00fa v&nbsp;medzere medzi statorom a rotorom, z\u00edskavaj\u00fa pri n\u00e1raze na rotor zlo\u017eku hybnosti v&nbsp;smere jeho ot\u00e1\u010dania. Ve\u013ek\u00fd odpor \u00fazkej medzery br\u00e1ni sp\u00e4tn\u00e9mu pr\u00fadeniu zo strany v\u00fdstupn\u00e9ho otvoru k\u00a0vstupn\u00e9mu [17]. Ot\u00e1\u010dky rotora sa pohybuj\u00fa v\u00a0intervale 24\u00a0000 a\u017e\u00a0 90\u00a0000 ot\u2219min<sup>-1<\/sup>. Be\u017en\u00e9 pracovn\u00e9 tlaky, ktor\u00e9 mo\u017eno dosiahnu\u0165 turbomolekul\u00e1rnymi v\u00fdvevami sa pohybuj\u00fa v\u00a0oblasti vysok\u00e9ho a\u00a0ultravysok\u00e9ho v\u00e1kua 10<sup>-1<\/sup> a\u017e 10<sup>-9<\/sup> Pa. R\u00fdchlosti \u010derpania sa pohybuj\u00fa medzi 36 a\u017e 14&nbsp;400&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>\/h [19].<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Dif\u00fazne v\u00fdvevy<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Naj\u010dastej\u0161ie sa pou\u017e\u00edvaj\u00fa na z\u00edskanie vysok\u00e9ho a za \u0161peci\u00e1lnych podmienok aj ultravysok\u00e9ho v\u00e1kua [17]. Rozsah tlakov sa pohybuje v\u00a0intervale medzi 10<sup>0<\/sup> a\u017e 10<sup>-8<\/sup> Pa. R\u00fdchlosti \u010derpania dif\u00faznych v\u00fdvev sa pohybuj\u00fa od 8&nbsp;640 do 180\u00a0000&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>\/h [20]. Princ\u00edp \u010dinnosti dif\u00faznej v\u00fdvevy je zalo\u017een\u00fd na dif\u00fazii molek\u00fal plynu do pr\u00fadu p\u00e1r pracovnej l\u00e1tky (napr. ortu\u0165, olej, paraf\u00edn) [17]. Na dne komory vyrobenej z\u00a0kor\u00f3ziivzdornej ocele je ohrieva\u010d, v\u00a0ktorom sa dif\u00fazny olej na silik\u00f3novej b\u00e1ze zohrieva do plynn\u00e9ho stavu, zvy\u010dajne na teploty medzi 180 \u2013 270&nbsp;\u00b0C [21]. Molekuly plynu, ktor\u00e9 nadifundovali do pr\u00fadu p\u00e1r, s\u00fa n\u00e1sledkom vz\u00e1jomn\u00fdch zr\u00e1\u017eok s&nbsp;molekulami pary un\u00e1\u0161an\u00e9 smerom k&nbsp;v\u00fdstupnej strane v\u00fdvevy. V&nbsp;tejto \u010dasti pary skondenzuj\u00fa na sten\u00e1ch v\u00fdvevy (ktor\u00e9 s\u00fa chladen\u00e9 vodou alebo vzduchom). Tam sa uvo\u013e\u0148uj\u00fa molekuly plynu, ktor\u00e9 sa od\u010derp\u00e1vaj\u00fa pomocnou predv\u00e1kuovej v\u00fdvevy [17].<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Kryog\u00e9nne v\u00fdvevy<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Kryog\u00e9nne v\u00fdvevy s\u00fa zalo\u017een\u00e9 na princ\u00edpe kondenz\u00e1cie plynov a p\u00e1r na povrchoch tuh\u00fdch telies, ktor\u00e9 s\u00fa ochladen\u00e9 na ve\u013emi n\u00edzke teploty (4 a\u017e 20 K). Pri takej n\u00edzkej teplote je tlak nas\u00fdten\u00fdch p\u00e1r v\u0161etk\u00fdch od\u010derp\u00e1van\u00fdch plynov okrem h\u00e9lia, vod\u00edka a ne\u00f3nu omnoho ni\u017e\u0161\u00ed ako tlak potrebn\u00fd na z\u00edskanie ultravysok\u00e9ho v\u00e1kua [17]. Pre \u00fa\u010dinn\u00e9 \u010derpanie v&nbsp;ultravysokom v\u00e1kuu mus\u00ed by\u0165 tlak pary pre kondenz\u00e1ciu alebo rovnov\u00e1\u017eny tlak pre adsorpciu men\u0161\u00ed ako 10<sup>-8<\/sup>\u00a0Pa.<\/p>\n<h2>INTERAKCIA ELEKTR\u00d3NOV\u00c9HO L\u00da\u010cA S&nbsp;HMOTOU<\/h2>\n<p>Elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d pri dopade na povrch zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov interaguje s&nbsp;ich\u00a0elektr\u00f3nmi a\u00a0sp\u00f4sobuje emisie:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>sp\u00e4tne odrazen\u00fdch elektr\u00f3nov,<\/li>\n<li>sekund\u00e1rnych elektr\u00f3nov,<\/li>\n<li>Augerov\u00fdch elektr\u00f3nov,<\/li>\n<li>\u017eiarenia,<\/li>\n<li>fluorescencie,<\/li>\n<li>tepeln\u00e9ho \u017eiarenia [22].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Ka\u017ed\u00fd druh fyzik\u00e1lneho sign\u00e1lu je emitovan\u00fd z\u00a0r\u00f4znej h\u013abky materi\u00e1lu. So zvy\u0161ovan\u00edm ur\u00fdch\u013eovacieho nap\u00e4tia a\u00a0t\u00fdm p\u00e1dom aj energie prim\u00e1rneho elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da, sa zv\u00e4\u010d\u0161uje h\u013abka a\u00a0emisn\u00fd objem ovplyvnen\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu. H\u013abka prieniku elektr\u00f3nov je ovplyvnen\u00e1 ur\u00fdch\u013eovac\u00edm nap\u00e4t\u00edm a hustotou zv\u00e1ran\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu. Z\u00a0 h\u013abok iba nieko\u013ek\u00fdch nanometrov s\u00fa emitovan\u00e9 n\u00edzko energetick\u00e9 Augerove elektr\u00f3ny (obr. 9.9). Tieto elektr\u00f3ny s\u00fa emitovan\u00e9 at\u00f3mami, ktor\u00e9 sa nach\u00e1dzaj\u00fa v\u00a0podpovrchovej vrstve hr\u00fabky 5 nm. Tieto sekund\u00e1rne elektr\u00f3ny maj\u00fa charakteristick\u00fa energiu v\u00a0z\u00e1vislosti od druhu at\u00f3mu, od ktor\u00e9ho sa odr\u00e1\u017eaj\u00fa. Sign\u00e1l tak\u00e9ho \u017eiarenia sa pou\u017e\u00edva v\u00a0elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch mikroskopoch na meranie emisie tepeln\u00e9ho \u017eiarenia.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-17 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image034.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image034\" title=\"image034\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"582\" height=\"450\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image034.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1240\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image034-200x155.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image034-400x309.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image034.jpg 582w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 582px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-33\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.9 Typy sign\u00e1lov vznikaj\u00facich pri interakcii elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da s\u00a0materi\u00e1lom [23]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Prostredn\u00edctvom kan\u00e1lu prenik\u00e1 elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d hlb\u0161ie pod povrch materi\u00e1lu.\u00a0 Z&nbsp;v\u00e4\u010d\u0161ej h\u013abky pod povrchom kovu (5 \u2013 50 nm) s\u00fa emitovan\u00e9 sekund\u00e1rne elektr\u00f3ny. Jedn\u00e1 sa o elektr\u00f3ny vyrazen\u00e9 z&nbsp;at\u00f3mov\u00fdch ob\u00e1lok prim\u00e1rnymi elektr\u00f3nmi. Z&nbsp;v\u00e4\u010d\u0161ej h\u013abky s\u00fa emitovan\u00e9 odrazen\u00e9 elektr\u00f3ny, tieto prim\u00e1rne elektr\u00f3ny prech\u00e1dzaj\u00fa sp\u00e4tn\u00fdm odrazom a intenzita emisie z\u00e1vis\u00ed hlavne od at\u00f3mov\u00e9ho \u010d\u00edsla at\u00f3mov materi\u00e1lu. Emisia fot\u00f3nov, teda fluorescencia vo vidite\u013enom svetle, nast\u00e1va v\u00a0pr\u00edpade ak doch\u00e1dza k&nbsp;rekombin\u00e1cii sekund\u00e1rnych elektr\u00f3nov s&nbsp;dierami vznikaj\u00facimi v&nbsp;niektor\u00fdch materi\u00e1loch v&nbsp;d\u00f4sledku rozptylu. \u010eal\u0161\u00edm d\u00f4sledkom interakcie elektr\u00f3nov s&nbsp;hmotou je emisia r\u00f6ntgenov\u00e9ho \u017eiarenia (spojit\u00e9ho a\u00a0charakteristick\u00e9ho) [23].<\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\">CHARAKTERIZ\u00c1CIA ELEKTR\u00d3NOV\u00c9HO L\u00da\u010cA<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V pr\u00edpade charakteriz\u00e1cie kvality elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da je potrebn\u00e9 vzia\u0165 do \u00favahy viacero faktorov. Elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d, ktor\u00fd sa pou\u017e\u00edva na zv\u00e1ranie, mus\u00ed by\u0165 charakteristick\u00fd dostatkom energie potrebnej na vyparovanie kovu. Z\u00e1rove\u0148 sa po\u017eaduje, aby ve\u013ekos\u0165 teplom ovplyvnenej oblasti bola \u010do najmen\u0161ia. Z&nbsp;toho d\u00f4vodu je nevyhnutn\u00e9 s\u00fastredi\u0165 ve\u013ek\u00e9 mno\u017estvo energie relat\u00edvne na \u010do najmen\u0161iu plochu (t. j. dosiahnu\u0165 vysok\u00fa hustotu energie). Najmen\u0161iu vyrobite\u013en\u00fa \u0161\u00edrku zvaru definuje minim\u00e1lny dosiahnute\u013en\u00fd priemer l\u00fa\u010da a\u00a0taktie\u017e r\u00fdchlos\u0165 zv\u00e1rania. \u010c\u00edm bude ma\u0165 elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d men\u0161\u00ed priemer, t\u00fdm sa bude zvy\u0161ova\u0165 aj prec\u00edznos\u0165 a kvalita zvarov. V\u00a0pr\u00edpade zv\u00e1rania ve\u013ek\u00fdch hr\u00fabok materi\u00e1lov a\u00a0dosiahnutia ve\u013ek\u00fdch h\u013abok prievaru sa po\u017eaduje mal\u00e1 divergencia elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da. Divergencia je ukazovate\u013e ud\u00e1vaj\u00faci, ako v\u00fdrazne sa elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d rozpty\u013euje s\u00a0narastaj\u00facou vzdialenos\u0165ou od ohniska. S\u00fa\u010din polomeru l\u00fa\u010da v\u00a0jeho naju\u017e\u0161om mieste (r<sub>0<\/sub>) a\u00a0polovi\u010dnej ve\u013ekosti uhla divergencie l\u00fa\u010da (\u03b8<sub>1\/2<\/sub>) (obr. 9.10) sa ozna\u010duje ako Beam Parameter Product (BPP). BPP je kon\u0161tanta l\u00fa\u010da, ktor\u00e1 sa nemen\u00ed so zv\u00e4\u010d\u0161en\u00edm. Krat\u0161ia ohniskov\u00e1 vzdialenos\u0165 m\u00f4\u017ee vies\u0165 k&nbsp;zmen\u0161eniu priemeru ohniska (men\u0161\u00ed obraz), av\u0161ak divergencia sa zhor\u0161uje.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na v\u00fdrobu \u00fazkych a hlbok\u00fdch zvarov sa po\u017eaduje, aby BPP dosahoval n\u00edzke hodnoty, a divergencia zdroja bola n\u00edzka. Obvykl\u00e9 hodnoty BPP pri zariadeniach na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom sa pohybuj\u00fa v&nbsp;rozmedz\u00ed 1 a\u017e 2 mm.mrad pri priemeroch l\u00fa\u010da 200 a\u017e 300\u00a0\u03bcm [9].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-18 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image036.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image036\" title=\"image036\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"289\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image036-600x289.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1241\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image036-200x96.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image036-400x193.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image036-600x289.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image036-800x386.jpg 800w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image036.jpg 873w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-34\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.10 Pozd\u013a\u017eny rez elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom a\u00a0defin\u00edcia minim\u00e1lneho priemeru l\u00fa\u010da a\u00a0uhla divergencie [9]<\/h6>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\">ZV\u00c1RANIE ELEKTR\u00d3NOV\u00ddM L\u00da\u010cOM<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom existuj\u00fa dve met\u00f3dy, ktor\u00e9 sa odli\u0161uj\u00fa hustotou energie. Prvou z&nbsp;nich je zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom v\u00a0tzv. re\u017eime veden\u00edm tepla (conduction welding) a druhou je zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom s\u00a0hlbok\u00fdm prevaren\u00edm, tzv. keyhole (obr. 9.10). Re\u017eim veden\u00edm tepla nach\u00e1dza svoje uplatnenie pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed tenk\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov. Pri tenk\u00fdch prierezoch sa materi\u00e1l na povrchu r\u00fdchlo tav\u00ed, pri\u010dom veden\u00edm tepla hlb\u0161ie do materi\u00e1lu sa z\u00edskava teplo potrebn\u00e9 na \u00fapln\u00e9 alebo \u010diasto\u010dn\u00e9 pretavenie materi\u00e1lu. Z&nbsp;h\u013eadiska morfol\u00f3gie je v\u00fdsledn\u00fd zvar ve\u013emi \u00fazky a to z&nbsp;dvoch d\u00f4vodov. Prv\u00fdm z&nbsp;nich je mal\u00fd priemer fokusovanej stopy prim\u00e1rneho l\u00fa\u010da. Druh\u00fdm je vysok\u00e1 hustota v\u00fdkonu, ktor\u00e1 umo\u017e\u0148uje pou\u017ei\u0165 vysok\u00e9 r\u00fdchlosti zv\u00e1rania spojen\u00e9 s&nbsp;rast\u00facou efektivitou v\u00fdroby. Z&nbsp;toho vypl\u00fdva, \u017ee pri\u013eahl\u00e9 oblasti neabsorbuj\u00fa ve\u013ek\u00e9 mno\u017estvo vzniknut\u00e9ho tepla.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V pr\u00edpade zv\u00e1rania hrub\u0161\u00edch prierezov sa v&nbsp;praxi vyu\u017e\u00edva zv\u00e1ranie v&nbsp;re\u017eime keyhole. Pri tejto met\u00f3de je l\u00fa\u010d fokusovan\u00fd do podpovrchovej vrstvy zv\u00e1ran\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu. Zv\u00e1ran\u00fd materi\u00e1l sa v&nbsp;mieste dopadu elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da nielen tav\u00ed, ale aj vyparuje. V\u00a0d\u00f4sledku toho sa vytvor\u00ed \u00fazky kan\u00e1l, ktor\u00fd je vyplnen\u00fd a obklopen\u00fd parami roztaven\u00e9ho kovu [23].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Do tejto vrstvy je e\u0161te schopn\u00fd ur\u00fdchlen\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d priamo prenika\u0165. D\u00f4sledok vyparovania roztaven\u00e9ho kovu je vznik tlaku v\u00a0paroplynovom kan\u00e1li, ktor\u00fdm je taviaci sa kov tla\u010den\u00fd k&nbsp;jeho sten\u00e1m. Medzi p\u00f4sobiacim vn\u00fatorn\u00fdm tlakom a povrchov\u00fdm nap\u00e4t\u00edm roztaven\u00e9ho kovu nast\u00e1va rovnov\u00e1ha [13]. Rovnov\u00e1ha s\u00edl udr\u017euj\u00facich paroplynov\u00fd kan\u00e1l (tzv. keyhole) v&nbsp;rovnov\u00e1he je zn\u00e1zornen\u00e1 na obr. 9.11.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-19 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image038.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image038\" title=\"image038\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"384\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image038-600x384.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1242\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image038-200x128.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image038-400x256.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image038-600x384.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image038-800x513.jpg 800w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image038.jpg 977w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-35\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.11 Sily udr\u017euj\u00face paroplynov\u00fd kan\u00e1l (keyhole) v\u00a0rovnov\u00e1he: F<sub>1<\/sub> \u2013 sila vyvolan\u00e1 parami kovu, F<sub>2<\/sub> \u2013 sila tlaku p\u00e1r v\u00a0kan\u00e1li, F<sub>3<\/sub> \u2013 trenie medzi parami kovu a\u00a0taveninou, F<sub>4<\/sub> \u2013 povrchov\u00e9 nap\u00e4tie, F<sub>5<\/sub> \u2013 elektromagnetick\u00e1 sila, F<sub>6<\/sub> \u2013 termokapil\u00e1rna sila vznikaj\u00faca v\u00a0d\u00f4sledku rozdielu tepl\u00f4t na prednej a\u00a0zadnej stene kan\u00e1la, F<sub>7<\/sub> \u2013 sila tlaku elektr\u00f3nov, F<sub>8\u00a0<\/sub>\u2013 sila hydrostatick\u00e9ho tlaku, F<sub>9<\/sub> \u2013 termokapil\u00e1rna sila v&nbsp;d\u00f4sledku\u00a0gradientu teploty na prednej stene kan\u00e1la, F<sub>10<\/sub> \u2013 povrchov\u00e9 nap\u00e4tie [23]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Men\u0161\u00ed podiel na vznik keyhole m\u00e1 priame vyparovanie kovu (cca 2&nbsp;% objemu kan\u00e1la) a tlak elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da [23]. F\u00e1zy vzniku zvarov\u00e9ho spoja vyhotoven\u00e9ho elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom s\u00fa uveden\u00e9 na obr. 9.12.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-20 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image040.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image040\" title=\"image040\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"594\" height=\"164\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image040.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1243\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image040-200x55.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image040-400x110.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image040.jpg 594w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 594px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-36\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.12 F\u00e1zy vzniku zvarov\u00e9ho spoja vyhotoven\u00e9ho elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom [1]\nA. Vysok\u00e1 koncentr\u00e1cia energie v&nbsp;ohnisku l\u00fa\u010da sp\u00f4sobuje tavenie materi\u00e1lu.<br \/>\nB. V&nbsp;centr\u00e1lnej \u010dasti doch\u00e1dza k&nbsp;odparovaniu materi\u00e1lu.<br \/>\nC. Vytvoren\u00fd paroplynov\u00fd kan\u00e1l (keyhole) umo\u017e\u0148uje hlb\u0161\u00ed prienik elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da do zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov.<br \/>\nD. Pri pohybe zv\u00e1ran\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov sa roztaven\u00fd materi\u00e1l premiest\u0148uje z&nbsp;prednej steny kan\u00e1la smerom k&nbsp;jeho zadnej stene, kde stuhne a vytvor\u00ed zvar [1]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Hlavnou v\u00fdhodou zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je \u00fazka teplom ovplyvnen\u00e1 oblas\u0165. Vzniknut\u00e9 zvy\u0161kov\u00e9 nap\u00e4tia a deform\u00e1cie s\u00fa pomerne mal\u00e9. T\u00e1to met\u00f3da zv\u00e1rania je obzvl\u00e1\u0161\u0165 vhodn\u00e1 na zv\u00e1ranie materi\u00e1lov vy\u017eaduj\u00facich dokonal\u00fa ochranu tavn\u00e9ho k\u00fape\u013ea pred okolitou atmosf\u00e9rou, ako je napr. tit\u00e1n. Hodnota drsnosti zvarov\u00fdch pl\u00f4ch (R<sub>a<\/sub>) by mala by\u0165 pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed materi\u00e1lov hrub\u0161\u00edch ako 10 mm men\u0161ia ako 3,2 \u03bcm. Zvarov\u00e9 plochy by mali k&nbsp;sebe tesne prilieha\u0165. Vo v\u00e4\u010d\u0161ine pr\u00edpadov s\u00fa n\u00e1sledne zvary opracovan\u00e9 z&nbsp;d\u00f4vodu kontroly a z\u00edskania povrchu bez vrubov. Pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom tit\u00e1novej zliatiny Ti6Al4V s&nbsp;hr\u00fabkou materi\u00e1lu 4 \u2013 22 mm sa odpor\u00fa\u010daj\u00fa r\u00fdchlosti zv\u00e1rania 9 \u2013 70 mm.s<sup>-1<\/sup> pri hodnot\u00e1ch ur\u00fdch\u013eovacieho nap\u00e4tia 110 \u2013 150 kV a\u00a0pr\u00fadoch l\u00fa\u010da 20 \u2013 55 mA [3]. Zv\u00e1ran\u00edm elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je mo\u017en\u00e9 sp\u00e1ja\u0165 materi\u00e1ly hr\u00fabok od 0,01 do 250 mm v\u00a0pr\u00edpade ocel\u00ed a v\u00a0pr\u00edpade zv\u00e1rania hlin\u00edka a\u017e do 500 mm [1].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Obr. 9.13 predstavuje porovnanie geometrie tup\u00e9ho zvarov\u00e9ho spoja vyroben\u00e9ho r\u00f4znymi sp\u00f4sobmi zv\u00e1rania. Vysok\u00e1 hustota energie, n\u00edzky mern\u00fd tepeln\u00fd pr\u00edkon a\u00a0\u00fazka nataven\u00e1 oblas\u0165 zapr\u00ed\u010di\u0148uj\u00fa, \u017ee zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom je sprev\u00e1dzan\u00e9 mal\u00fdmi deform\u00e1ciami zv\u00e1ran\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu. \u00darove\u0148 deform\u00e1cie je v\u00fdrazne ni\u017e\u0161ia v&nbsp;porovnan\u00ed so zv\u00e1ran\u00edm TIG, MIG a\u00a0plazmov\u00fdm obl\u00fakom, tak\u017ee pri mnoh\u00fdch praktick\u00fdch aplik\u00e1ci\u00e1ch m\u00f4\u017ee \u00faplne absentova\u0165 kone\u010dn\u00e1 \u00faprava po zv\u00e1ran\u00ed [22].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-21 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image041.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image041\" title=\"image041\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"372\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image041-600x372.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1244\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image041-200x124.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image041-400x248.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image041-600x372.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image041.jpg 678w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-37\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.13 Geometria tup\u00e9ho zvarov\u00e9ho spoja vyroben\u00e9ho r\u00f4znymi sp\u00f4sobmi zv\u00e1rania [22]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Porovnanie obl\u00fakov\u00fdch sp\u00f4sobov zv\u00e1rania so zv\u00e1ran\u00edm elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed ocele hr\u00fabky 150 mm je dokumentovan\u00fd v\u00a0tab. 9.6.<\/p>\n<p><em>Tab. 9.6 Porovnanie obl\u00fakov\u00fdch sp\u00f4sobov zv\u00e1rania so zv\u00e1ran\u00edm elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed ocele s&nbsp;hr\u00fabkou 150 mm [22]<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"left\">Parameter<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Zv\u00e1ranie MAG do \u00fazkej medzery<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Zv\u00e1ranie pod tavivom do \u00fazkej medzery<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Zv\u00e1ranie pod tavivom<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Zv\u00e1rac\u00ed pr\u00fad<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">270 mA<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">260 A<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">650 A<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">510 A<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Nap\u00e4tie<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">150 kV<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">30 V<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">30 V<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">30 V<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Pou\u017eit\u00fd v\u00fdkon<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">40,5 kW<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">7,8 kW<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">19,5 kW<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">15,3 kW<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Prierez zvaru<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">800 mm<sup>2<\/sup><\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">2&nbsp;100 mm<sup>2<\/sup><\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">4&nbsp;900 mm<sup>2<\/sup><\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">5&nbsp;900 mm<sup>2<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Po\u010det prechodov<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">1<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">35<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">81<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">143<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Spotreba pr\u00eddavn\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">0&nbsp;kg<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">23&nbsp;kg<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">54&nbsp;kg<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">66&nbsp;kg<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">V\u00fdkon roztavenia<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">7,7 kg\/h<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">5 kg\/h<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">13 kg\/h<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">9 kg\/h<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">\u010cas zv\u00e1rania<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">27 min<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">4 hod 35 min<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">4&nbsp;h 11 min<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">7 hod 27 min<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-38\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Zv\u00e1ranie zliatin s&nbsp;n\u00edzkou teplotou tavenia, ako je hlin\u00edk alebo hor\u010d\u00edk a\u00a0ich zliatin m\u00f4\u017ee by\u0165 \u010dasto v\u00fdzvou, preto\u017ee koncentr\u00e1cia vysok\u00e9ho v\u00fdkonu l\u00fa\u010da m\u00f4\u017ee jednoducho prehria\u0165 materi\u00e1l, \u010do m\u00f4\u017ee ma\u0165 za n\u00e1sledok p\u00f3rovitos\u0165, nepravideln\u00fa kresbu zvarovej h\u00fasenice a\u00a0vznik rozstreku. Dynamick\u00e9 vychy\u013eovanie l\u00fa\u010da (obr. 9.14) po dr\u00e1he naprogramovan\u00e9ho tvaru s\u00a0frekvenciou nieko\u013eko stoviek hertzov a nastavenie \u010fal\u0161\u00edch hodn\u00f4t vych\u00fdlenia pom\u00e1ha zni\u017eova\u0165 hustotu v\u00fdkonu v\u00a0mieste dopadu l\u00fa\u010da na zv\u00e1ran\u00fd materi\u00e1l, a t\u00fdm zabra\u0148uje prehrievaniu zliatiny. P\u00f3rovitos\u0165 je tak mo\u017en\u00e9 minimalizova\u0165 alebo sa jej \u00faplne vyhn\u00fa\u0165, kresbu mo\u017eno vyhladi\u0165 a vo v\u00e4\u010d\u0161ine pr\u00edpadov eliminova\u0165 tvorbu rozstreku [10].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-22 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image043.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image043\" title=\"image043\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"337\" height=\"225\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image043.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1245\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image043-200x134.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image043.jpg 337w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 337px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-39\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.14 Vplyv oscil\u00e1cie elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da na geometriu zvarov\u00fdch spojov [10]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00a0\u0161peci\u00e1lnych pr\u00edpadoch sa m\u00f4\u017ee po\u017eadova\u0165 zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom v\u00a0konduk\u010dnom re\u017eime, ktor\u00fdm sa (na rozdiel od zv\u00e1rania v\u00a0re\u017eime keyhole) oby\u010dajne vyr\u00e1baj\u00fa \u0161irok\u00e9 a plytk\u00e9 zvary. Tieto zvary mo\u017eno pou\u017ei\u0165 na kozmetick\u00e9 zvary (cosmetic pass) zabezpe\u010duj\u00face vyhladenie kresby zvarovej h\u00fasenice vyrobenej zv\u00e1ran\u00edm elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom v\u00a0re\u017eime keyhole (obr. 9.15). Kozmetick\u00e1 h\u00fasenica sa dosahuje zn\u00ed\u017een\u00edm v\u00fdkonu l\u00fa\u010da a bu\u010f jeho defokus\u00e1ciou alebo vychy\u013eovan\u00edm.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-23 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image045.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image045\" title=\"image045\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"485\" height=\"362\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image045.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1246\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image045-200x149.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image045-400x299.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image045.jpg 485w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 485px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-40\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.15 Prie\u010dny rez zvarov\u00fdm spojom s\u00a0aplik\u00e1ciou kozmetickej h\u00fasenice po zv\u00e1ran\u00ed elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom [10]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00a0priemyselnej v\u00fdrobe sa dosahuj\u00fa u\u017e mnoho rokov pomery h\u013abky zvaru k\u00a0jeho \u0161\u00edrke a\u017e 40:1 [10]. Je taktie\u017e mo\u017en\u00e9 pou\u017ei\u0165 zv\u00e1ranie viacer\u00fdmi elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdmi l\u00fa\u010dmi (tzv. multi-pool alebo multi-beam welding).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Viacer\u00fdmi elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdmi l\u00fa\u010dmi je mo\u017en\u00e9 zv\u00e1ra\u0165 materi\u00e1ly, ktor\u00e9 s\u00fa n\u00e1chyln\u00e9 na hor\u00face praskanie, ak sa zv\u00e1raj\u00fa be\u017en\u00fdmi sp\u00f4sobmi zv\u00e1rania, predov\u0161etk\u00fdm v\u00a0d\u00f4sledku vzniku n\u00edzkotavite\u013en\u00fdch eutekt\u00edk a\u00a0nap\u00e4t\u00ed zo zv\u00e1rania. Jedn\u00fdm zo sp\u00f4sobov ako eliminova\u0165 hor\u00face praskanie je pou\u017eitie dvoch elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch l\u00fa\u010dov, ktor\u00e9 sa pohybuj\u00fa za zv\u00e1rac\u00edm l\u00fa\u010dom. Elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom ohriate oblasti sp\u00f4sobuj\u00fa expanziu materi\u00e1lu (obr. 9.16). Tlak, ktor\u00fd pritom vznik\u00e1 kompenzuje \u0165ahov\u00e9 nap\u00e4tia vznikaj\u00face pri kry\u0161taliz\u00e1cii zvarov\u00e9ho kovu, \u010do vy\u00fas\u0165uje do elimin\u00e1cie hor\u00faceho praskania [9].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-24 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image047.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image047\" title=\"image047\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"379\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image047-600x379.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1247\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image047-200x126.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image047-400x253.png 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image047-600x379.png 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image047.png 623w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-41\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.16 Zv\u00e1ranie viacer\u00fdmi elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdmi l\u00fa\u010dmi, s\u00a0cie\u013eom elimin\u00e1cie hor\u00faceho praskania [9]<\/h6>\n<h2>KOMORY NA ZV\u00c1RANIE ELEKTR\u00d3NOV\u00ddM L\u00da\u010cOM<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Od v\u00fdskytu prv\u00fdch elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdch zv\u00e1rac\u00edch zariaden\u00ed na konci 50.&nbsp;rokov 20.&nbsp;storo\u010dia sa aplik\u00e1cia zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom r\u00fdchlo roz\u0161\u00edrila do priemyslu a v\u00fdskumu vo v\u0161etk\u00fdch rozvinut\u00fdch krajin\u00e1ch. Doteraz bolo navrhnut\u00e9 a realizovan\u00e9 mno\u017estvo r\u00f4znych typov zariaden\u00ed. Vo v\u00e4\u010d\u0161ine z&nbsp;nich sa zv\u00e1ranie uskuto\u010d\u0148uje vo v\u00e1kuovej komore vo vysokom alebo n\u00edzkom v\u00e1kuu.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00e1kuov\u00e9 pracovn\u00e9 komory m\u00f4\u017eu ma\u0165 ak\u00fdko\u013evek po\u017eadovan\u00fd objem, od nieko\u013ek\u00fdch litrov a\u017e po stovky m<sup>3<\/sup>. M\u00f4\u017eu by\u0165 vybaven\u00e9 elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdmi delami, ktor\u00e9 dod\u00e1vaj\u00fa elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d s&nbsp;ak\u00fdmko\u013evek po\u017eadovan\u00fdm v\u00fdkonom do 100 kW alebo dokonca viac, ak je to potrebn\u00e9. V&nbsp;zariadeniach ur\u010den\u00fdch na mikrozv\u00e1ranie m\u00f4\u017eu by\u0165 presne zv\u00e1ran\u00e9 komponenty s&nbsp;rozmermi desat\u00edn milimetra. Pri elektr\u00f3novo-l\u00fa\u010dov\u00fdch zv\u00e1rac\u00edch zariadeniach s&nbsp;dostato\u010dne vysok\u00fdm v\u00fdkonom je mo\u017en\u00e9 realizova\u0165 h\u013abky prievaru a\u017e 300 mm na jeden prechod elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da. Existuj\u00fa tie\u017e zv\u00e1racie zariadenia, v&nbsp;ktor\u00fdch sa elektr\u00f3nov\u00fd l\u00fa\u010d vyvedie z&nbsp;v\u00e1kua do atmosf\u00e9ry. Tak\u00fdmto zariaden\u00edm je mo\u017en\u00e9 zv\u00e1ra\u0165 nadrozmern\u00e9 predmety bez obmedzenia rozmermi v\u00e1kuov\u00fdch kom\u00f4r. Na obr. 9.17.&nbsp;je dokumentovan\u00e1 v\u00e1kuov\u00e1 komora, ktorej objem je 630&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>. Uveden\u00e9 zariadenie sa pou\u017e\u00edva na zv\u00e1ranie hlin\u00edkov\u00fdch plechov nosnej rakety Ariane 5 [9].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-25 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image049.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image049\" title=\"image049\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"618\" height=\"746\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image049.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1248\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image049-200x241.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image049-400x483.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image049-600x724.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image049.jpg 618w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 618px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-42\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.17 V\u00e1kuov\u00e1 komora zariadenia K6000 (s&nbsp;objemom 630&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>) s\u00a0gener\u00e1torom elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da vo vn\u00fatri komory upevnenom na robotickom ramene [9]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Komora K6000 je \u0161peci\u00e1lne navrhnut\u00e1 na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom nadrozmern\u00fdch a \u0165a\u017ek\u00fdch komponentov a m\u00e1 vn\u00fatorn\u00fd gener\u00e1tor pripojen\u00fd k&nbsp;ramenu robota (obr. 9.18).<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-26 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image051.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image051\" title=\"image051\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"419\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image051-600x419.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1249\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image051-200x140.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image051-400x279.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image051-600x419.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image051.jpg 750w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-43\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.18 K6000 je najv\u00e4\u010d\u0161ia komora na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom pre civiln\u00e9 pou\u017eitie [24]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">To mu umo\u017e\u0148uje presne zv\u00e1ra\u0165 aj zlo\u017eit\u00e9 geometrie. Syst\u00e9m dok\u00e1\u017ee zv\u00e1ra\u0165 komponenty s&nbsp;rozmermi do 6 \u00d7 6 \u00d7 14&nbsp;m s&nbsp;maxim\u00e1lnou hmotnos\u0165ou 100 t, pri\u010dom \u010das v\u00e1kuovania komory je do 35 min\u00fat [25]. Technick\u00e1 \u0161pecifik\u00e1cia zariadenia od firmy probeam s\u00a0komorou K6000 je uveden\u00e1 v\u00a0tab. 9.7.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em>Tab. 9.7 Technick\u00e1 \u0161pecifik\u00e1cia zariadenia K6000 [24] <\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"left\">Objem komory<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">700&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Max. ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">80 kV<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">V\u00fdkon l\u00fa\u010da<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">40 kW<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Pr\u00fad l\u00fa\u010da<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">0 a\u017e 500 mA<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"left\">Rozmery pracovn\u00e9ho priestoru<\/td>\n<td align=\"left\">11,4&nbsp;m \u00d7 4,5&nbsp;m \u00d7 6&nbsp;m<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-44\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na obr. 9.19 je dokumentovan\u00e1 v\u00e1kuov\u00e1 komora EBW System 110 od spolo\u010dnosti Sciaky Inc. Rozmery v\u00e1kuovej komory s\u00fa 2,79 \u00d7 2,79 \u00d7 2,79 m, \u010do predstavuje objem takmer 22&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>. V\u00fdkon zariadenia je 42 kW a\u00a0ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie 60 kV [25].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-27 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image053.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image053\" title=\"image053\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"386\" height=\"272\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image053.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image053-200x141.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image053.jpg 386w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 386px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-45\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.19 Zariadenie EBW System 110 na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom od firmy Sciaky Inc. [25]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na Materi\u00e1lovotechnologickej fakulte STU so s\u00eddlom v\u00a0Trnave je in\u0161talovan\u00e9 zariadenie PZ EZ 30 STU (obr. 9.20) od firmy Prv\u00e1 zv\u00e1ra\u010dsk\u00e1, a.s. Bratislava. Ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie zariadenia je 60\u00a0kV a\u00a0maxim\u00e1lny v\u00fdkon dosahuje 30 kW. Objem v\u00e1kuovej komory je 13,4&nbsp;m<sup>3<\/sup>. Rozmery v\u00e1kuovej komory s\u00fa 2,36 \u00d7 3,15 \u00d7 1,8&nbsp;m. \u010cas v\u00e1kuovania komory je 25 min. Je potrebn\u00e9 zd\u00f4razni\u0165, \u017ee sa jedn\u00e1 o\u00a0najv\u00e4\u010d\u0161iu komoru na zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom na Slovensku [26].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-28 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image054.jpg\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image054\" title=\"image054\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image054-600x450.jpg\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1251\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image054-200x150.jpg 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image054-400x300.jpg 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image054-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image054-800x600.jpg 800w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image054.jpg 988w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-46\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.20 Elektr\u00f3novol\u00fa\u010dov\u00fd zv\u00e1rac\u00ed komplex PZ EZ 30 STU [26]<\/h6>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><em>Parametre zv\u00e1rania<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Medzi prim\u00e1rne parametre zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom patr\u00ed:<\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li>pr\u00fad elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da [mA],<\/li>\n<li>v\u00fdkon elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da [kW],<\/li>\n<li>ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie [kV],<\/li>\n<li>r\u00fdchlos\u0165 zv\u00e1rania [mm\/s],<\/li>\n<li>fokusa\u010dn\u00fd pr\u00fad [mA],<\/li>\n<li>parametre oscil\u00e1cie elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da (tvar dr\u00e1hy, rozmery, frekvencia oscil\u00e1cie) a<\/li>\n<li>priemer stopy elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da [mm] [6,27].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Do skupiny sekund\u00e1rnych parametrov sa zara\u010fuje napr\u00edklad:<\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li>v\u00fd\u0161ka v\u00e1kua [Pa],<\/li>\n<li>vzdialenos\u0165 medzi elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom a\u00a0zv\u00e1ranou s\u00fa\u010diastkou [mm].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Pri zv\u00e1ran\u00ed materi\u00e1lu mimo v\u00e1kua zohr\u00e1va d\u00f4le\u017eit\u00fa \u00falohu aj vzdialenos\u0165 od vy\u00fastenia elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da z\u00a0elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho dela po zv\u00e1ran\u00fd materi\u00e1l v\u00a0atmosf\u00e9re [28].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Najv\u00e4\u010d\u0161\u00ed vplyv na tvar a\u00a0rozmer v\u00fdsledn\u00e9ho zvaru m\u00e1 najm\u00e4 ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie, ktor\u00e9 spolu s\u00a0pr\u00fadom elektr\u00f3nov\u00e9ho l\u00fa\u010da ur\u010duj\u00fa jeho v\u00fdkon. V\u00a0pr\u00edpade, ak sa zv\u00fd\u0161i ur\u00fdch\u013eovacie nap\u00e4tie a\u00a0pr\u00fad l\u00fa\u010da, doch\u00e1dza k\u00a0hlb\u0161iemu prieniku elektr\u00f3nov do materi\u00e1lu a\u00a0n\u00e1rastu mno\u017estva vnesen\u00e9ho tepla [27, 29].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Pavl\u00edk sa zaoberal pos\u00faden\u00edm vplyvu parametrov zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom na vlastnosti prepl\u00e1tovan\u00fdch zvarov\u00fdch spojov medi s\u00a0austenitickou kor\u00f3ziivdzornou oce\u013eou AISI304, ktor\u00e1 bola umiestnen\u00e1 ako vrchn\u00fd plech. Hr\u00fabka z\u00e1kladn\u00fdch materi\u00e1lov bola 2 mm. Na obr. 9.21 je dokumentovan\u00e1 \u0161\u00edrka zvarov\u00e9ho spoja pri povrchu od r\u00fdchlosti zv\u00e1rania a\u00a0pr\u00fadu l\u00fa\u010da. Autor pozoroval na z\u00e1klade met\u00f3dy n\u00e1vrhu experimentu, \u017ee najv\u00e4\u010d\u0161\u00ed vplyv na \u0161\u00edrku prepl\u00e1tovan\u00e9ho zvaru mal pr\u00e1ve pr\u00fad l\u00fa\u010da [29].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-29 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image056.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image056\" title=\"image056\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"459\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image056-600x459.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1252\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image056-200x153.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image056-400x306.png 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image056-600x459.png 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image056.png 687w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-47\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.21&nbsp;2D graf z\u00e1vislosti \u0161\u00edrky zvaru pri povrchu od r\u00fdchlosti zv\u00e1rania a pr\u00fadu l\u00fa\u010da [29]<\/h6>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\">V\u00ddHODY TECHNOL\u00d3GIE<\/h2>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li>dobr\u00fd vzh\u013ead zvaru,<\/li>\n<li>mal\u00e9 deform\u00e1cie zvarkov,<\/li>\n<li>\u00fazky zvar a \u00fazka teplom ovplyvnen\u00e1 oblas\u0165,<\/li>\n<li>dokonal\u00e1 ochrana zvaru pred vzdu\u0161nou atmosf\u00e9rou a\u00a0dobr\u00e9 rafina\u010dn\u00e9 \u00fa\u010dinky v\u00e1kua,<\/li>\n<li>zv\u00e1ranie bez pr\u00eddavn\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu,<\/li>\n<li>zv\u00e1ranie materi\u00e1lov ve\u013ek\u00fdch hr\u00fabok na 1 prechod,<\/li>\n<li>mo\u017enos\u0165 pou\u017eitia na zv\u00e1ranie rozsiahleho sortimentu materi\u00e1lov, vr\u00e1tane kombin\u00e1ci\u00ed materi\u00e1lov,<\/li>\n<li>vysok\u00fd stupe\u0148 automatiz\u00e1cie procesu [6, 30].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\">NEV\u00ddHODY TECHNOL\u00d3GIE<\/h2>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li>vysok\u00e9 vstupn\u00e9 n\u00e1klady na zv\u00e1racie zariadenie,<\/li>\n<li>vysok\u00e9 n\u00e1klady na zv\u00e1ranie materi\u00e1lov,<\/li>\n<li>tvorba r\u00f6ntgenov\u00e9ho \u017eiarenia,<\/li>\n<li>potreba v\u00e1kua,<\/li>\n<li>na zv\u00e1ranie sa vyu\u017eije len mal\u00e9 percento z\u00a0celkov\u00e9ho \u010dasu zv\u00e1rania,<\/li>\n<li>praskanie zvarov\u00fdch spojov (nepriazniv\u00fd charakter prim\u00e1rnej kry\u0161taliz\u00e1cie zvarov\u00e9ho kovu),<\/li>\n<li>n\u00e1roky na presnos\u0165 vedenia l\u00fa\u010da [6, 30].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\">APLIK\u00c1CIE ZV\u00c1RANIA ELEKTR\u00d3NOV\u00ddM L\u00da\u010cOM<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Vyu\u017eitie je prakticky v&nbsp;ka\u017edom v\u00fdrobnom odvetv\u00ed, av\u0161ak medzi najv\u00fdznamnej\u0161ie z&nbsp;nich patria tie, pri ktor\u00fdch nie je mo\u017en\u00e9 pou\u017ei\u0165 ostatn\u00e9 sp\u00f4soby zv\u00e1rania, kv\u00f4li zvl\u00e1\u0161tnym po\u017eiadavk\u00e1m na zvary [31].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em>Tab. 9.8 Hlavn\u00e9 odvetvia priemyslu pre aplik\u00e1ciu zv\u00e1rania elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom [29,31]<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"table-2\">\n<table style=\"width: 100%; height: 192px;\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<th style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\"><strong>Leteck\u00fd a raketov\u00fd priemysel<\/strong><\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\"><strong>Jadrov\u00fd priemysel<\/strong><\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\"><strong>Automobilov\u00fd priemysel<\/strong><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">komponenty pr\u00fadov\u00fdch motorov<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">sn\u00edma\u010de<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">diely turbod\u00fachadiel<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">kon\u0161truk\u010dn\u00e9 diely<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">pohonov\u00e9 \u010dasti palivov\u00fdch \u010dl\u00e1nkov<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">hriadele<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">sn\u00edma\u010de<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">kontajnery na r\u00e1dioakt\u00edvny odpad<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">ozuben\u00e9 koles\u00e1<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">turb\u00edny<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">absorp\u010dn\u00e9 puzdr\u00e1 vyhoren\u00e9ho jadrov\u00e9ho paliva<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">\u010dasti karos\u00e9rie<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">rozv\u00e1dzacie lopatky<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">ventily<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">prevodovky<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">tlmi\u010de vibr\u00e1ci\u00ed rotora<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">turbokompresoroy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 24px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\">segmenty vencov statorov<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 24px;\" align=\"left\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;margin-bottom:20px;width:100%;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-48\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na obr. 9.22 je zobrazen\u00fd tlmi\u010d vibr\u00e1ci\u00ed rotora a lopatiek vrtu\u013en\u00edka, ktor\u00fd sl\u00fa\u017ei na eliminovanie straty vyv\u00e1\u017eenosti rotora a ktor\u00fd bol vyhotoven\u00fd elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom z&nbsp;5 \u010dast\u00ed [32].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-30 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image058.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image058\" title=\"image058\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"600\" height=\"337\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image058-600x337.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1253\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image058-200x112.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image058-400x224.png 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image058-600x337.png 600w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image058.png 713w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-49\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Na obr. 9.23 je zn\u00e1zornen\u00e1 p\u00edla vyroben\u00e1 z\u00a0r\u00fdchloreznej ocele HS 6-5-2 privaren\u00e1 na oce\u013e CK 45 v&nbsp;\u017e\u00edhanom stave. Zv\u00e1ran\u00edm elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom sa podarilo u\u0161etri\u0165 a\u017e 50&nbsp;% r\u00fdchloreznej ocele [32].<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-image-element \" style=\"text-align:center;--awb-caption-title-font-family:var(--h2_typography-font-family);--awb-caption-title-font-weight:var(--h2_typography-font-weight);--awb-caption-title-font-style:var(--h2_typography-font-style);--awb-caption-title-size:var(--h2_typography-font-size);--awb-caption-title-transform:var(--h2_typography-text-transform);--awb-caption-title-line-height:var(--h2_typography-line-height);--awb-caption-title-letter-spacing:var(--h2_typography-letter-spacing);\"><span class=\" fusion-imageframe imageframe-dropshadow imageframe-31 hover-type-none\" style=\"border:1px solid #e2e2e2;-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);box-shadow: 3px 3px 7px rgba(0,0,0,0.3);\"><a href=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image060.png\" class=\"fusion-lightbox\" data-rel=\"iLightbox[ebw]\" data-title=\"image060\" title=\"image060\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"586\" height=\"357\" src=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image060.png\" alt class=\"img-responsive wp-image-1254\" srcset=\"https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image060-200x122.png 200w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image060-400x244.png 400w, https:\/\/zvaranie.mtf.stuba.sk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/image060.png 586w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 586px\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-50\"><h6 style=\"text-align: center;\">Obr. 9.23 \u010cas\u0165 p\u00edly z\u00a0ocele HS6-5-2 privarenej na oce\u013e CK 45 [32]<\/h6>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-51\" style=\"--awb-content-alignment:left;\"><h2>Literat\u00fara<\/h2>\n<p>[1]\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Steigerwald Strahltechnik. 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Dostupn\u00e9 na internete: http:\/\/vestnik.pstu.ru\/get\/_res\/fs\/ [cit. 2021-08-30]\n[6]\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 TUR\u0147A, M.: \u0160peci\u00e1lne met\u00f3dy zv\u00e1rania. Bratislava : ALFA, 1989. Zv\u00e1ranie elektr\u00f3nov\u00fdm l\u00fa\u010dom, s. 188. ISBN 80-05-00097-9<\/p>\n<p>[7]\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 ZOBA\u010c, M.: Elektronov\u00fd svazek v\u00a0technologi\u00edch \u00a92010. Dostupn\u00e9 na internete: http:\/\/ebt.isibrno.cz\/cs\/elektronovy-svazek-v-technologiich [cit. 2020-07-01]\n[8]\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 ZOBA\u010c, L. a kol.:\u00a0 V\u00edce\u00fa\u010delov\u00e1 vakuov\u00e1 pec s\u00a0induk\u010dn\u00edm, elektronov\u00fdm a odporov\u00fdm oh\u0159evem. Slaboproud\u00fd obzor, ro\u010d. 28, 1965, s. 146\u2013152<\/p>\n<p>[9]\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 ADAM, V., CLAU\u00df, U., v. 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